At first acquaintance with the African people, the errors which they commit in sexual nomenclature appear very absurd,—as of a man pointing out to me a strapping daughter of his, and saying, "Dat be my son;" of another-as one of our interpreters did when up the Niger-handing me a calabash to drink out of, observing, "Dis be bullock's milk for thrue;" of the same man introducing a chief's sister by remarking, "When him brudder no live, him be biggest man for town ;" and of a native trader giving an order to a British supercargo, in one of the palm-oil rivers, to bring him out "a man and woman goose, with a cock and hen jackass." ELEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING. Held at the ROYAL INSTITUTION, on the 23rd March, 1857, A quarto copy of Prince Albert's "Speeches and Addresses" was subscribed for. Several interesting extracts from the Koran, prepared by the high priests, or Mallams, and intended to be sewn up in leathern bags and worn round the neck as charms by the African Mahommedans, were exhibited by Dr. Thomson. The paper for the evening was then read, entitled RESULTS OF AN ENQUIRY INTO THE ACTION OF LIVERPOOL WATER UPON LEAD. By J. B. NEVINS, M.D. AND J. B. EDWARDS, Ph.D., F.C.S., Of which the following is an abstract :-- The authors gave a general sketch of the researches and views of chemists upon the action of hard and soft waters, especially upon lead cisterns and piping, from which it appeared that the generally received opinion is, that while soft waters act rapidly upon the metal, hard waters very soon cease to act upon it by forming a protecting crust or coating upon the surface. This subject, being of the utmost public importance, has received special attention from scientific men; and several chemists have endeavoured to generalize results, and to ascribe the solution of lead to an uniform cause. Free carbonic acid, atmospheric air in solution, organic matter, earthy chlorides, saline nitrate, alkaline carbonates, and, more lately, lower oxides of nitrogen resulting from the oxidation of ammonia, have been, by different authors, considered as the special solents of lead under the varied circumstances in which that metal is found to be corroded. A recent government report, by Professors Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, contains the following conclusions, arrived at by these able investigators : 1st. That the protecting coat of sulphates is not uniformly reliable. 2nd. That the presence of certain chlorides and nitrates increases the power of solution. 3rd. That bicarbonate of lime is the most effectual protective. In the experience of the authors numerous instances have occurred in which hard water had attacked and dissolved lead, and exhibited upon analysis serious contaminations of that metal. In some cases the solution of the lead might be ascribed to extreme softness, in others to the presence of chlorides of magnesium and calcium, and Dr. Nevins has shewn, on a previous occasion, that a large proportion of sulphate of lime was favourable to the solution of the lead, although a small proportion of that salt protected it. The properties of the water obtained from the wells round Liverpool have been frequently ascertained by several able chemists, and the uniform result has been that these waters have been found to possess no solvent property upon lead. The experience of practical plumbers, however, has been to the effect that leaden cisterns containing rain water appear never to suffer loss or decay, while those in which hard water is stored are corroded with greater or less rapidity, become eaten into holes, and leak, notwithstanding the production of an adherent and regular crust upon the surface. The action of hard water, therefore, appears to be continuous, and instances were quoted in which the bottoms of thick leaden cisterns were corroded through in periods of two months, six months, eighteen months, and two years respectively, by the action of the supply from the well water of Liverpool. It would thus at first sight appear that the plumber is at issue with the chemist upon this question. It appears to be established, however, by confirmed observation, that the well waters of Liverpool, with rare exceptions, whilst they attack and corrode the cisterns, do not hold the lead in chemical solution, and no evil has therefore arisen from the use of lead for storing this water. A careful examination of the old cistern lead and the deposit, throws some light upon the cause of corrosion. This deposit, which adheres firmly to the lead, does not fall uniformly over the surface of the metal, but in spots or lines over the bottom and along the edges of the solder within the cistern, and upon analysis proves to be carbonate as well as sulphate of lead, and also contains oxide of tin. It is, therefore, obviously the result of a galvanic action between the lead and the solder, which goes on to the complete corrosion of the lead, and is sustained with greater energy in proportion as the water is harder, or contains more chloride. Many interesting pieces of lead from old cisterns were exhibited, illustrating the nature of this action. In reference to the Rivington water, the authors had instituted a large series of experiments, upwards of sixty in number, and extending over a period of six weeks, with a view of fully investigating its action upon lead. The water was taken by themselves from the reservoirs of Anglezark, Rivington, and Prescot, and from the wells at Green-lane. In every case the Rivington water acted distinctly, and in some cases, largely on the lead. In no case was any dissolved by the well water from Green-lane. A general analysis of the water taken from the head of the Rivington reservoir, gave Dr. Edwards the following result: It would appear, as the result of these experiments, that the quantity of sulphate and carbonate of lime is too small to afford the necessary amount of protection. Comparative experiments were made with scraped lead, dull cistern lead, old cistern lead, new and old pipe lead, &c. Two new cisterns were also prepared, each holding about a gallon, from which at various periods samples of the water were drawn off and analysed. In twenty-four hours the presence of lead was apparent, and increasingly so up to thirty-three days, when the whole was evaporated, the lead precipitated, and found to amount to about three grains of lead per imperial gallon. The cistern being again charged, and left eleven days, yielded, upon evaporation, nearly two grains of metallic lead for each imperial gallon. The cistern was again filled, and examined at the end of seven weeks; not more than a quarter of a grain of lead was then obtained, and the conclusion is drawn that after a very considerable period the solution of the lead would probably cease. Further experiments also proved that a mixture of Rivington water with Green Lane, in the proportion of two of the former to one of the later, acted decidedly upon the lead. When mixed in equal proportion a slight but perceptible effect was produced; but in the proportion of two parts of well water to one of Rivington, no action took place. It appeared important practically to ascertain what action the water would have upon the incrustation already formed by the well water upon the interior of cisterns in the town. Experiments on the subject show that while the tendency of the water is to disintegrate and detach the coating, it does not dissolve lead therefrom even after a period of long contact; the coating already existing upon old cisterns will therefore still prove some protection. It did not appear that any lead was dissolved by the mere passage of water through leaden pipes, and it was observed that no injury to the public was likely to arise from the use of this water, provided that leaden cisterns be well coated with good paint or a suitable cement.* TWELFTH ORDINARY MEETING. Held at the ROYAL INSTITUTION, on the 20th April, 1857, The following gentleman was elected an Ordinary Member:- Dr. THOMSON exhibited an admirable miniature painting of the late President, Joseph B. Yates, Esq., F.S.A., being a coloured photograph, by Mr. Foard. Its faithfulness, delicacy, and artistic beauty were much admired. A photograph, by Mr. Keith, of the chaste and wellcut tablet by Mr. J. P. Macbride, erected to his memory in the ancient chapel, Toxteth Park, was also shown by the Rev. Mr. ROBBerds, who described the manner in which the artist had so successfully introduced chromatic colouring into the marble sculpture. A more detailed account of these and other experiments has been published in a separate form, and may be obtained from the authors, or through the secretary. Mr. BYERLEY exhibited a specimen of the nudibranch Doto Coronata, found on the dock wall between Seacombe and Birkenhead. Dr. THOMSON showed a new bark, from the Clarence river, which contained a powerful alkaloid, the nature of which had not been ascertained, from the smallness of the specimen received. It was suggested that it resembled strychnia rather than quinine, but nothing positive could be stated. The first paper of the evening was then read ON COLOUR PATTERNS IN NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. BY THE REV. H. H. HIGGINS, M.A., VICE-PRESIDENT. The patterns formed by colour in animals or vegetables possess an interest which is in some respects peculiar. This interest is distinguished and heightened by our inabilty to assign the proximate reasons which have determined the pattern in any particular instance. In peculiarities of form or structure, we are usually able to trace what are termed adaptations to certain ends. For example, in ornithology, the bills of various birds are described as long or short, blunt or pointed, hard or soft, and so forth; and in correspondence with these variations, we find one bird procuring its food under stones, another from the seeds of the pine tree, another from the marsh, or in the air whilst on the wing. We say the bill is adapted to the habits and requirements of the bird; and the observation of facts of this nature constitutes one of the chief sources of delight in the pursuit of natural history. I do not at all question that this is a right source of gratification, though to look somewhat deeper, these adaptations seem to me to involve a mystery, and to take for granted far more than we really know respecting the creative idea. If, for instance, the snipe's bill be an adaptation, then in the order of the creative idea, though not necessarily of the creative act, there was a sequence. A bird was to be made to feed in a marsh, and a suitable bill was provided. But what was the idea of the bird before the bill was thought out? The feet and wings are adaptations too. What was the idea of the bird before any of these adaptations were added? But if the creative idea comprised at once the bird and its habits, then, strictly speaking, no part taken by itself is an adaptation. It may be said that the admirers of adaptations in nature mean no more than that they perceive and admire a certain fitness and propriety in the construction of certain organs when regarded in connexion with their uses. And this is perfectly just so long as the whole production S |