of time is carefully eliminated. This is called a "Time Study," and its final determinations are then incorporated in a "Shop Operation Sheet," which is used as a guide by the mechanic who does the work. This is really an equitable plan and perfectly fair for both sides, and both the employer and the workman must admit it to be the only scientific plan yet devised for such work.

By the use of the second plan the tendency is to attract to each class of work the men best fitted for the job. A good man will increase his output from 30 to 50 per cent, when working with the same machine and tools that he would use in day work. He will also perfect his methods and probably improve his tools somewhat, if he is assured against a cut in the rate, if by his ingenuity, ability, and energy he exceeds the expectations of the official who fixes the rate. He should be permitted to increase his output 50 per cent if he can do so and still produce good work.

It may seem easy to avoid the dissatisfaction over cutting rates by first setting a rate low and then raising it gradually until the proper point is reached, since workmen never object to the rate being raised. There are, however, valid objections to this method. Days and sometimes weeks will be spent in acquiring the data for these adjustments on a single piece, and the larger the number of different pieces handled the greater will be the time required and expense incurred. Other considerations will also enter into the matter. For instance, the overhead or general expenses, and the hourly rates upon machines, both of which will be seriously affected by the fluctuations of the output of the machines. The fact should not be lost sight of that any plan which tends to increase the output of machines, even while increasing the pay roll considerably, is usually more than counterbalanced by the lowering of the overhead expenses as considered pro rata with the value of the product.

The matter of accurately and intelligently fixing the price or a fair rate of machine operations is entirely practicable. Let us assume that we have a lot of cast iron chuck plates to finish in an ordinary engine lathe. This is taken as an example of an easy and simple job for illustration. In Fig. 212 is shown the sixteen different operations, and for purposes of analysis the chucking and mounting; in fact, each step up to the final removing of the piece from the lathe. To obtain a proper rate for this work it will be put in the hands of a fairly good workman and the time occupied in performing each operation will be noted by a time-study man, who observes the work, watch in hand, and notes the elapsed time. Being expert at this duty he will know if there is any unnecessary loss of time, and if he is not satisfied with the progress of the work, he will require the set of operations to be performed a second time. This will give a fair and accurate account of the elapsed time,

which may be safely used in calculating the piece work rate. These conclusions may be checked by having the operations performed by a second man and the time averaged as between the two.

Many of these operations can be calculated without the work being actually performed. For instance: turning cast iron, using tools of highspeed or self-hardening steel, may be done at a speed of 50 to 60 feet per minute, and a feed, on a roughing cut of 8 or 10 revolutions per inch, and on a finishing cut 15 to 25 per inch. In Fig. 212 roughing and finishing cuts are not shown separately, but it is to be understood that both are included, and that sometimes three cuts may be necessary, namely, roughing, sizing, and finishing.

As usually arranged, the results of a time study consisting of a series of operations is recorded upon a card of the form shown in Fig. 213. In this

case the several parts of the operation are given for purposes of analysis. Thus we have the serial number of the operation, the time required to set up the job, to set the tools, to make the cuts, to remove the piece, and then to give the total time. These times are given in minutes and fractions, either seconds or quarter-minute periods. The best practice is in minutes and seconds, since some of the periods will be very short, and, if accurate calculations are required, quarter minutes are not sufficiently close.

When the proper time has been arrived at the operator is given the work together with the Piece Work Card shown in Fig. 214, which has the upper third portion completely filled out with the information required. At the center of the card is specified the quantity and description of the operation and the rate, and below is given the Standard Time, as "5 hours and 10 minutes per 100 pieces," or "time per piece 3.1 minutes" or "3 minutes

and 6 seconds each." The actual time is similarly filled in below when the work is finished, and the amount earned is entered on the central portion of the card. The card having been signed by the inspector after he has inspected the work, and approved by the foreman, becomes the authority for payment.

This method may seem unnecessarily intricate and exact, but if we consider the importance of a system that shall inaugurate and maintain a clear and fair understanding between the employer and his workmen on the subject of piece work, and the immense value there is in the system that will produce a good quality of work and a largely increased output, it will be found that the time and the money spent in organizing such a system and carrying

it on as a part of the regular routine of the establishment, will be the most economical and productive investment made in and about the plant.

The use of Shop Operation Sheets consists in providing sheets for the use of the workmen upon which is a drawing of the piece to be machined, a detailed description of each operation to be performed, and describing the tools, jigs, and fixtures to be used; the machine upon which the work is to be done; and giving the number of the drawing or blue print upon which the dimensions can be found. A sample form is shown in Fig. 215. These operation sheets are usually made from a printed blank on bond paper. The drawing is made by hand and the blank portions filled in on a typewriter, after which as many blue prints as may be necessary are made. The finished dimensions may be given on the drawing at the top, so as to avoid the necessity of referring to the sheet of detail drawings containing the piece to be machined.

It will be readily seen that these operation sheets are an important

factor in increasing the efficiency of the machine, although they are really intended for the better and more prompt instruction of the operator; and

having them at hand is of much assistance, not only in securing the proper sequence of operations, but in the rapidity with which the changes from one operation to another can be made. At the same time they give confidence and support to the operator in his work.