D. L. 8 Miles. 159.99 24 54.81 47 40.92 6921.50 259.97 2554.384840.15 70 20.52 359.92 26 53.934939.36|71 19.54 459.86 27 53.46 50 38 5772 18.55 559.77 2852.97 51 37.76||73 17.54 659.67 292.47|52|36.94|74 16.53 759.56 50 51.96 5336.117515.52 859.4 31 51.43 54 35.2776 14.51 959.26 32 50.88 5554.4177 13.50 1059.08 33 50.52||55|33.5578 12.48 1158.89 34 49.74 57 32.68 79 11.45 1258.68 35 49.15 5831.79 80 10.42 1558.46 36 48.5459 30.901 9.38 14 58.22 37 47.9% 60 30.00 8 8.35 1557.95 38 47.2851 29.0985 7.32 1657.67 39 46.62 6728.17 84 6.28 17 57.37 40 15.95 03 27.2435 5.23 1857 06 41 45.28 6426.308 4.18 1956.73 4744.59||65|25.36||37| 3.14| 2056.38 43 43.88 6 24.4138 2.09| 2156.04443,16||67| 23.44|39 105 2255.63 1342.43 68 22.4890 0.00 25 55.23 1641.68 LONGITUDE, in navigation, the distance of a ship or place, east or west, from another, reckoned in degrees of the equator. As the discovery of a method to find the longitude would render voyages safe and expeditious, and also preserve ships and the lives of men, the following rewards have been offered by act of parliament, as an eucouragement to any person who shall discover a proper method for finding it out: the author or authors of any such method shall be entitled to the sum of 10,000l. if it determines the longitude to one degree of a great circle; to 15,000l. if it determines the same to two-thirds of that distance; and to 20,000l. if it determines the same to onehalf of the same distance; and that half of the reward shall be due and paid when the commissioners of the navy, or the major part of them, agree that any such method extends to the security of ships within 80 geographical miles of the shores, which are places of the greatest danger; and the other half, when a ship, by the appointment of the said commissioners, or the major part of them, shall thereby actually sail over the VOL. IV. ocean, from Great Britain to any such port in the West Indies as those commissioners, or the major part of them, shall choose for the experiment, without losing their longitude beyond the limits before-mentioned. The French, Dutch, Spaniards, and other nations, have likewise offered rewards for the same purpose. Since, by the motion of the earth round its axis, every point upon its surface describes the circumference of a circle, or 360°, in twenty-four hours time, it is plain it must describe 15° in one hour, because 15. Hence the difference of longitude may be converted into time, by allowing one hour for every 15 degrees, and proportionally for minutes; also difference of time may be converted into difference of longitude by allowing 15° for every hour, and proportionally for a greater or less time. Consequently by knowing the one we can easily find the other. Whatever contrivance, therefore, shows the hours of the day, at the same absolute point of time, in two different places, likewise serves to find the difference of longitude between those places. Now, since an eclipse of the moon proceeds from nothing else but an interposition of the earth between her and the sun, by which means she is prevented from reflecting the light she would otherwise receive from the sun, the moment that any part of her body begins to be deprived of the solar rays, it is visible to all those people who can see her at the same time; whence, if two or more different people, at two or more different places, observe the times when it first began or ended, or note the time when any number of digits was eclipsed, or when the shadow begins to cover or quit any remarkable spot, the difference of those times (if there be any) when compared together, will give the difference of longitude between the places of observation. The longitudes of places may also be determined from the observations of solar eclipses, but these being encumbered with the considerations of parallaxes, are not near so proper as those of the moon; and each of these happening but rarely, an. other excellent expedient has been thoug!. of, and that is the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. Now as neither Jupiter nor any of his attendants have any native light of their own, but shine with a borrowed light from the sun, it happens that each of these, in every revolution about Jupiter, suffers two eclipses, one at their entrance into the sha. M dow, the other at the entrance of their passage behind his body; whence in each revolution of the satellite there are four remarkable appearances, by the observa. tion of any one of which the business may be done, viz. one at the entrance into the shadow, and one at the emersion ont of it; one at the entrance behind the body, and another at the coming out; but the latter of these, viz. the ingress and egress of the satellite, into and from under the body, is not so much regarded by astronomers as the immersion into and out of the shadow, because, in the former, the difficulty of pronouncing the exact time is very great, it requiring, in each observer, eyes equally good and strong, and telescopes equally large; but the observation of the former of these, viz. the immersion into, and emersion out of the shadow, is easy and practicable, because the quick motions of the satellites plunge them so quickly into the shadow of Jupiter, that it is no difficult matter to pronounce, by any telescope by which they may be seen, the exact time of their immersion and emersion, as any one may soon be satisfied, if he will but try the experiment. And as each of these happens at the same moment of absolute time, if two or more persons, in different places, note the time of observation, these, when compared together, will give the difference of longitude between the two places of observation. And, when we consider the great number of these eclipses that happen every year, there being more visible in one year than there are days in it, and consequently, but few nights when Jupiter may be seen, (and which is near eleven months of the year) but that an eclipse of one or other happens, and sometimes two or three in a night; the ease with which they may be made, requiring only a telescope of eight or ten feet in length, which may be almost managed with the hand; and the Jittle likelihood there is of missing the times of ingress or egress, they being in a manner momentaneous; and lastly, the great exact ness to which they would give the difference of longitude, it being certainly as exact as the latitude can at present be taken; it is much to be wondered at, that the more skilful part of our seamen have so long neglected them, and especially in the several ports into which they sail. The eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and their configurations, are given in the nautical ephemeris. Besides these, there is another method equally useful, expeditious, and certain ; and that is, the appulses of the moon to certain fixed stars, and their occultations by the interposition of her body; for, the moon finishing her revolution in the space of twenty-seven days, seven hours, fortythree minutes, there are but few clear nights when the moon does not pass over or so near to some fixed star, that her distance from it, or the time of her visible conjunction with it, may be easily observed by the telescope, and micrometer only; and these, when compared together, or with the visible time computed to the meridian of some place, will show the difference of longitude of those places. It is a great objection to the methods here described that the agitation of a ship at sea prevents their being useful. But the invention of Hadley's quadrant and its modern improvements, with the degree of perfection to which the moon's place can now be had, by computation, added to the great facilities afforded by the nautical almanack and requisite tables, published by the commissioners of longitude, and other works, particularly Mendoza's extensive Tables, patronized by them, have rendered the determination of the longitude at sea, a thing of easy and general practice by observations of the angular distance of the moon from a fixed star. This was first proposed by John Warner, in his Notes to Ptolemy's Geography, in 1514, and since by others, particularly our Sir Jonas Moor, Flamstead, Halley, Bradley; and in later times, with great diligence, zeal, and ability, by the present Astronomer Royal, Dr. Maskelyne. For the processes and computations the reader will have recourse to the works just mentioned. The principle is simple and easy. An observer at sea measures the angle between the moon and the sun, or a fixed star, while two other observers take their altitudes in order to determine the quantities of refraction and parallax. The two zenith distances, and the oblique distance, constitute a spherical triangle; of which the angle of the zenith may be determined, and then by correcting the altitudes for parallax and refraction two other zenith distances may be had, which are correct, and with these and the angle at the zenith, a new triangle is constituted, of which the oblique side is the correct distance. By comparing this distance with those in the nautical almanack, the time at Greenwich is obtained, and the difference between this and the time (observed by an altitude or otherwise) at the ship, gives the differ ence of longitude. Though this computation with tables, which give every tenth second, is not operose, it is much abridged by the formulæ given in the said works. Time-pieces are likewise rendered so perfect at present, that they afford the most inestimable assistance to mariners, See CHRONOMETER and HOROLOGY. Our John Harrison, between the years 1726 and 1762, first vanquished the great difficulty, and was rewarded with 20,000. from the English government. Very liberal encouragement has since been given to other artists, such as Arnold, Earnshaw, and others. LONGITUDE of motion, according to some philosophers, is the distance which the centre of any moving body runs through, as it moves on in a right line. LONGITUDINAL, in general, denotes something placed lengthwise: thus some of the fibres of the vessels in the human body are placed longitudinally, others transverse ly, or across. LONGOMONTANUS (CHRISTIAN), a learned astronomer, born in Denmark in 1562, in the village of Longomontam, whence he took his name. Vossius, by mistake, calls him Christopher. Being the son of a poor man, a ploughman, he was obliged to suffer, during his studies, all the hardships to which he could be exposed, dividing his time, like the philosopher Cleanthes, between the cultivation of the earth, and the lessons he received from the minister of the place. At length, at fifteen years old, he stole away from his family, and went to Wiburg, where there was a college, in which he spent eleven years; and though he was obliged to earn his livelihood as he could, his close application to study enabled him to make a great progress in learning, particularly in the mathe. matical sciences. He accordingly obtained a professorship of mathematics in the University of Copenhagen, in 1605; the duty of which he discharged very worthily till his death, which happened in 1647, at eighty-five years of age. Longomontanus was author of several works, which show great talents in mathematics and astronomy. The most distinguished of them is his "Astronomica Danica," first printed in quarto, 1621, and afterwards in folio, in 1640, with augmentations. He amused himself with endeavouring to square the circle, and pretended that he had made the discovery of it; but our countryman, Dr. John Pell, attacked him warmly on the subject, and proved that he was mistaken. It is remarkable, that, obscure as his village and father were, be contrived to dignify and eternize them both; for he took his name from his village, and in the title page to some of his works, he wrote himself Christianus Longomontanus Severini filius; his father's name being Severin or Severinus. LONICERA, in botany, honeysuckle, named from A. Lonicer, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Aggregatæ. Caprifolia, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla one-petalled, irre gular; berry many-seeded, two-celled, inferior. There are nineteen species, of which L. grata, ever-green honeysuckle, is the most beautiful: it grows naturally in North America: it has strong branches, covered with a purple bark, which are ornamented with lucid green leaves, embracing the stalks, and continuing their verdure all the year; the flowers are produced in whorled bunches at the end of the branches; there are frequently two, and sometimes three, of these bunches rising one out of the other; they are of a bright red on their outside, and yellow within, of a strong aromatic flavour; it begins to flower in June, and there is a constant succession of flowers till the From hence he went to Copenhagen; where the professors of that University soon conceived a very high opinion of him, and recommended him to the celebrated Tycho Brahe; with whom Longomontanus lived eight years, and was of great service to him in his observations and calculations. At... length, being very desirous of obtaining a professor's chair in Denmark, Tycho Brahe consented with some difficulty to his leav. ing him; giving him a discharge filled with the highest testimonies of his esteem, and furnishing him with money for the expense of his long journey from Germany, whither Tycho had retired. frost puts an end to them. LOO, or lanter-loo, a game at cards. See LANTER LOO. LOOF, in the sea-language, is a terin used in various senses; thus the loof of a ship is that part of her aloft which lies just before the chest-tree; hence the guns which lie there are called loof pieces: keep your loof, significs, keep the ship near to the to sail into wind; to loof into a harbour, it close by the wind; loof up, is to keep nearer the wind; to spring the loof, is when a ship that was going large before the wind is brought close by the wind. LOOKING-glasses, are nothing but plane mirrors of glass; which being impervious to the light, reflect the images of things placed before them. See OPTICS. LOOM, a frame composed of a variety of parts, used in all the branches of weaving; for a particular description of which see WEAVING. LOOM, in the sea-language: when a ship appears big, when seen at a distance, they say she looms. LOOM gule, a gentle easy gale of wind, in which a ship can carry her topsails a trip. LOOP, in the iron works, denotes a part of a sow, or block of cast iron, broken or melted off from the rest. Loop holes, in a ship, are holes made in the coamings of the hatches of a ship, and in their bulk-heads, to fire muskets through, in a close fight. LOPPIUS, the angler, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order Cartilaginei. Generic character: head depressed; teeth numerous and sharp; mouth armed with teeth; pectoral fins brachiated. There are eight species, of which we shall notice the following. L. europæus, or the European angler, is a native of the European seas, and measures sometimes seven feet in length, but is generally about three, in shape simi. lar to a tadpole. It frequents the shallow parts of the sea, and imbedding itself almost completely in sand or gravel, moves its tentacula, or the long processes on its head, in various directions. The small fishes mistaking these for worms, catch at them with avidity, and in the moment of expected happiness find certain destruction. L. his trio, or the harlequin angler, is a native of the Indian and American seas, and is one of the most curious and remarkable of fishes; but we have not here room for the detail of its form and appendages. Its general length is about a foot. Its ventral fins resemble short arms, and Shaw mentions Renard's stating, that he knew an instance of some of these fishes living without water for three days, and walking about the house in the manner of a dog! For a representation of this fish see Pisces, Plate V. fig. 3. LOPPING, among gardeners, the cut ting off the side branches of trees. LORANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Aggregatæ. Caprifolia, Jussien. Essential character: germ inferior; calyx none; corolla six-cleft, revolute; stamens at the tips of the petals; berry one-seeded. There are eighteen species; these are mostly parasitical shrubs, having thick opposite leaves; and axillary flowers: natives of warm climates. LORD's day. All persons not having a reasonable excuse, shall resort to their parish church or chapel (or some congregation of religious worship allowed by the toleration act) on every Sunday, on pain of pu nishment by the censures of the church, and of forfeiting one shilling to the poor for every offence. To be levied by the churchwardens by distress, by warrant of one justice. The hundred shall not be answerable for any robbery committed on the Lord's day. No person upon the Lord's day shall serve or execute any writ, process, warrant, order, judgment, or decree (except in cases of treason, felony, or breach of the peace), but the service thereof shall be void. Public houses are shut during the usual hours of divine service. LORICARIA, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order Abdominales. Generic character: head smooth; mouth without teeth; gill membrane six-rayed; body mailed. Of this genus there are, according to Gmelin, two species. Shaw enumerates seven. The L. costata is found both in the seas of India and America, and is a fish highly daring, and, by the strength and acuteness of its spines, capable of wounding and lacerating those who attempt to take it with great severity. By the fishermen in those seas they are regarded as formidable enemies. See Pisces, Plate V. fig. 4. L. callicthys, which alone we shall add to the former, is about twelve inches in length, and by the inhabitants of Surinam is regarded as a delicacy. It is stated by a writer of most ludicrous or contemptible credulity, that this fish being harassed occasionally by the shallowness of the stream which it has inhabited, makes an excursion by land in search of another that it may find deeper, or even perforates the land for the same purpose. LOTION, in medicine and pharmacy, is such washing as concerns beautifying the skin, by cleansing it of those deformities which a distempered blood sometimes throws upon it, or rather are made by a preternatural secretion. There is reason to believe, that almost all the lotions advertised for sale as quack medicines, contain much deleterious matter, such as muriated mercury, and therefore ought never to be had recourse to. LOTTERY, a game of hazard, in which small sums are adventured for the chance of obtaining a larger value, either in money or other articles. Lotteries are formed on various plans; but in general they consist of a certain number of tickets, which are drawn at the same time, with a corresponding number of blanks and prizes mixed together, and by which the fate of the tickets is determined. This species of gaming has been sanctioned by the governments of France, Holland, Great Britain, and other countries, as a means of raising money for public purposes; as from the contributions being voluntary, it is always easier to obtain money in this way than by new taxes: it is, however, liable to the serious objection, that it tempts many persons to lose more than they can conveniently spare, particularly among the lower classes of society, who are led to neglect the gains of honest industry for the chance of acquiring sudden riches by a prize in the lottery. The proposals for the first public lottery in England were published in 1567 and 1568, and it was drawn in 1569, at the west door of St. Paul's cathedral. The tickets were sold at ten shillings each, and there were no blanks. The prizes consisted chiefly of plate; and the profits of it were intended for the repair of the havens of the kingdom, and other public works. In 1612 King James granted permission for a lottery, to be held at the west end of St. Paul's, of which the highest prize was of the value of 4000 crowns, in plate : this was for the assis. tance of the Virginia company, who were licensed to open lotteries in any part of England, by which means they raised 29,000l. At length these lotteries came to be considered a public evil; they attracted the attention of Parliament, were represented by the Commons as a grievance, and in 1620 were suspended by an order of council. In 1630, however, Charles I. granted a special licence for a lottery, or lotteries, "according to the course of other lotteries heretofore used or practised," for defraying the expenses of a project for conveying water to London. Soon after the revolution, Lotteries were resorted to among other expedients for raising part of the extraordinary sums necessary for the public service, by which the disposition for this species of gambling was greatly encouraged and extended; and private lotteries, formed on the most delusive and fraudulent principles, became so general, not only in London, but in all the other principal towns of England, that par liament found it necessary, in 1698, to pass an act for suppressing them; by which a penalty of 5001. was laid on the proprietors of any such lotteries, and of 201. on every adventurer in them; notwithstanding which, the disposition to fraud on the one hand, and for adventure on the other, continued to prevail, and small lotteries were carried on under the denomination of sales of gloves, fans, cards, plate, and other articles. This was attempted to be checked by a clause of an act passed in 1712, which only gave rise to a new mode of carrying on this kind of gaming. The adventure was now made to depend on the drawing of the government lottery; and the selling and buying of chances and parts of chances of tickets in the state lotteries became a general prac tice, till it was prohibited by an act passed in 1718, by which all undertakings resembling lotteries, or being dependent on the state lottery, were strictly prohibited, under the penalty of 100l. over and above all penalties enjoined by former acts of parliament against private lotteries. During the reign of Queen Anne, the lotteries were generally for terminable annuities, to which both blanks and prizes were entitled, at different rates: thus, in 1710, the lottery consisted of 150,000 tickets, valued at 10l. each; every ticket being entitled to an annuity for thirty-two years, the blanks at 14s. per annum, and the prizes, to greater annuities, from 5l. to 1,000l. per annum. This was the first lottery for which the Bank of England received the subscriptions for goyernment. In the following year, the whole of the money advanced for the tickets was to be repaid, both in blanks and prizes, in thirty-two years, with interest at 6 per cent. and an additional sum of nearly half a mi!lion to be divided in order to form the prizes; which additional capital was to be paid, with the like interest, within the same period as the original sum. In this manner, which was continued in several of the subsequent years, a very considerable premium was given for the money advanced, in addition to a high rate of interest. According to the lottery plans which prevailed from Sir Robert Walpole's administration to that of the Duke of Grafton, the tickets were issued at 10l. each; and occasionally the subscription was open to the public at large. The highest prize was generally 10,000l. and the lowest 201. There were from four to six blanks to one prize, and the blanks entitled the bearers to five or six pounds stock in 3 or 4 per cent. Bank |