the bar B B, through each of the branches, formed by the opening in the bottom mortices, are cut as is well seen in fig. 3; these receive the end of a short piece of iron, m, having a screw tapped into it; it is by screwing this screw tight up against the underside of the bar, that the puppet is fastened upon it; a small piece of iron plate is put between the end of the screw and the underside of the bar, to defend it from bruises by the latter; the upper end of the puppets are perforated with cylindrical holes, to receive truly turned pins, n n, and which are fixed at any place by screws, oo, these holes must be exactly in a line with each other, when the puppets are set at any place upon the bar, and it is to accomplish this, that too much care cannot be taken in forming the bar perfectly straight and true in the first instance, and of sufficient strength to preserve its figure. F is another puppet, fixed on the bar, in the same manner as D and E; it has a conical hole through its upper end, whose centre is exactly in the same line with the holes through the other two puppets D and E, this conical hole is the socket for the mandrill, G, to turn in, being conical at that part, and fitting the socket with the greatest accuracy; the other end is pointed, and turns in a hole made in the pin, n, of the puppet, D, and which besides the screw, o, has another at its end tapped into a cock, screwed to the puppet, to keep it up to its work; the mandrill has a pulley fixed on it, with three grooves of different sizes, to receive a band of catgut which goes over it, and round the great iron wheel, A A; it is by this that the mandrill is turned. I is the rest, composed of three principal pieces, shown separate in fig. 5, one of these pieces, r, is filed to an angle withinside, and furnished with a screw similar to the puppets, whereby it can be fastened to the bar; on each side of this, pieces of iron, s s, are laid on the bar, and are fastened together by two short bars, tt, to which they are both screwed, the main piece, r, being cut away to make room for them. L is the bottom part of the rest, supported on the two pieces, ss, it has a dove-tailed groove along the underside, a button, with a head like a screw, is fastened to the top of the main piece, r, and is received into the groove; when the screw of the piece, r, is turned, it draws the button down towards the bar, and as its head takes its bearing on the inside of the groove, it must hold the piece L fast down upon the pieces, ss; when the

screw is loosened the whole rest can be moved along the bar B, the piece L can be slid backwards and forwards upon the pieces, s s, or it can be turned round upon the button of the piece, r, as a centre, at the convenience of the workmen; and all these motions are firmly clamped by the screw beneath the bar. The piece L has at one end a short iron tube fixed to it, in this an iron pin is fitted, to hold at its upper end the cross bar, V, on which the tool is laid, a screw is fixed in the tube, and a nut upon it presses a piece of iron, w, upon the ends of two short pins going through the tube, the other ends take against the large iron pin of the rest, V; when the nut is unscrewed the rest can be set higher or lower, or turned round obliquely, and fixed by turning the nut; the bar, v, of the rest, is fixed on by a screw, so that it can be easily changed for another when worn, or for different work there should be two or three of different sizes with the lathe. The mandrill, G, of the lathe should be of iron, and at the part where it turns in the collar, F, it should have a piece of good steel welded round it, and turned very true in a lathe, and also the point at the end should be of steel; a small hole is drilled down from the top of the puppet, F, into the collar to supply it occa sionally with oil. The end of the mandrill, beyond the collar, is formed into a male screw, whereon to fix the work to be turned. The manner of holding the work varies in almost every instance, and is explained under the article TURNING; in general, it is held in pieces of wood called cheeks, screwed to the mandrill, they are turned hollow like a dish, and the work is driven into the cavity, as shown in fig. 1.

LATHRÆA, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and order. Natural order of Personata. Pediculares, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx fourcleft; gland depressed at the base of the suture of the germ; capsule one-celled. There are four species, of which L. squamaria, great tooth-wort, has a headed root, branched and surrounded with white succulent scales; it is parasitical, and generally attached to the roots of elms, hasels, or some other trees, in a shady situation; or, it has usually a naked stem; flowers in a spike from one side of the stem in a double row; calyx hairy; segments equal; corolla pale purple, or flesh-coloured, except the lower lips, which is white. Native of most parts of Europe.

LATHYRUS, in botany, a genus of the

Diadelphia Decandria class and order. Natural order of Papilionacea or Leguminosa. Essential character: calyx two, upper segments shorter; style flat, villose above, broader at the end. There are twentythree species, among which is the L. odoratus, sweet lathyrus, or sweet pea, as it is commonly called, is an annual plant, about three feet in height, attaching itself to the nearest plant, by means of its long claspers or tendrils, the flower stalks come out at the joints, which are about six inches long, sustaining two large flowers, possessing a strong odour; these are succeeded by oblong hairy pods, having four or five roundish seeds in each. There are many varieties, according to Linnæus the common dark sort is a native of Sicily, and the painted lady of Ceylon.

LATITAT, in law, a writ, which in personal actions is the commencement of a suit in the King's Bench, where the party is to be arrested in any other county than Middlesex.

LATITUDE, the distance of a place from the equator, or an arc of the meridian intercepted between the zenith of the place and the equator. Hence latitude is either northern or southern, according as the place, whose latitude is spoken of, is on this or that side of the equator. Thus London is said to be in fifty-one degrees thirtytwo minutes north latitude. Circles parallel to the equator, are called parallels of latitude, because they shew the latitudes of places by their intersection with the meridian. If through the poles of the world we conceive innumerable great circles drawn, these are called secondaries of the equator, and by their help, the position of every point, either on earth or in the heavens, with regard to the equinoctial; that is, the latitude of any point is determined. One of the secondaries, passing through any place on the earth's surface, is called the meridian of that place, and on it the latitude of that place is measured. The latitude of a place, and the elevation of the pole of that place above the horizon, are terms used indifferently for each other, because the latitude and elevation of the pole are always equal. The knowledge of the latitude of a place is of the utmost conse quence in navigation; and the methods of determining it, both at sea and land, are generally the same. As the altitude of the pole is always equal to the latitude, the latitude is consequently best found by observing the pole's height; but as the pole is

only a mathematical point, and no ways to be observed by our senses, its height cannot be determined in the same manner as that of the sun and stars, &c.; for which reason another manner has been contrived. A meridian line is first drawn, on which is placed a quadrant, so that its plane may be in the plane of the meridian; then some star near the pole is taken; for example, the pole star, (which never sets) and observation is made of both its greatest and least altitude. The latitude may also be found by having the sun or a star's declination and meridian altitude, taken with a quadrant or astrolabe. The method is this: observe the meridian and distance of the sun from the vertex or zenith, which is always the complement of his meridian altitude; correct for the dip of the horizon, refraction, and add to this the sun's declination, when the sun and the place are on the same side of the equator; and subtract the declination when they are of different sides; the sum, in the former case, and the difference in the latter, will be the latitude required. But when the declination of the sun is greater than the latitude of the place, which is known from the sun's being nearer to the elevated pole than the vertex of the place is, as it frequently happens in the torrid zone, then the difference between the sun's declination and his zenith distance, is the latitude of the place. If the sun or star have no declination, but move in the equinoctial that day, then the elevation of the equator will be equal to his meridian altitude, and consequently his meridian altitude is the complement of the latitude to ninety.

LATITUDE, in astronomy, the distance of a star or planet from the ecliptic, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, measured on a circle of latitude drawn through that star or planet, being either north or south, as the object is situated either on the north or south side of the ecliptic. The ecliptic being drawn on the common celestial globes, we may see what constellations it passes through: there are usually six circles of latitude, which, by their mutual intersections, show the poles of the ecliptic, as well as divide it into twelve equal parts, answerable to the number of months in a year.

LATTEN, denotes iron plates tinned over, of which tea-canisters are made. Plates of iron being prepared of a proper thinness, are smoothed by rusting them in an acid liquor, as common water made eager with rye: with this liquor they fill cer

tain troughs, and then put in the plates, which they turn once or twice a day, that they may be equally rusted over; after this they are taken out, and well scowered with sand, and, to prevent their rusting again, are immediately plunged into pure water, in which they are to be left till the instant they are to be tinned or blanched, the manner of doing which is this: they flux the tin in a large iron crucible, which has the figure of an oblong pyramid with four faces, of which two opposite ones are less than the two others. The crucible is heated only from below, its upper part being luted with the furnace all round. The crucible is always deeper than the plates, which are to be tinned, are long; they always put them in downright, and the tin ought to swim over them; to this purpose artificers of different trades prepare plates of different shapes; though M. Reaumur thinks them all exceptionable. But the Germans use no sort of preparation of the iron, to make it receive the tin, more than the keeping it always steeped in water, till the time; only when the tin is melted in the crucible, they cover it with a layer of a sort of suet, which is usually two inches thick, and the plate must pass through this before it can come to the melted tin. The first use of this covering is to keep the tin from burning; for if any part should take fire, the suet would soon moisten it, and reduce it to its primitive state again. The blanchers say, this suet is a compounded matter; it is indeed of a black colour, but M. Reaumur supposed that to be only an artifice, to make it a secret, and that it is only coloured with soot or the smoke of a chimney; but he found it true so far, that the common unprepared suet was not sufficient; for after several attempts, there was always something wanting to render the success of the operation certain. The whole secret of blanching, therefore, was found to lie in the preparation of this suet; and this, at length, he discovered to consist only in the first frying and burning it. This simple opera. tion not only gives it the colour, but puts it into a condition to give the iron a disposition to be tinned, which it does surprisingly. The melted tin must also have a certain degree of heat, for if it is not hot enough, it will not stick to the iron; and if it is too hot, it will cover it with too thin a coat, and the plates will have several colours, as red, blue, and purple, and upon the whole will have a cast of yellow. To prevent this, by knowing when the fire has a proper

degree of heat, they might try with small pieces of iron; but in general, use teaches them to know the degree, and they put in the iron when the tin is at a different standard of heat, according as they would give it a thicker or thinner coat. Sometimes also they give the plates a double layer, as they would have them very thickly covered. This they do by dipping them into the tin, when very hot, the first time; and when less hot, the second. The tin which is to give the second coat, must be fresh covered with suet, and that with the common suet, not the prepared.

LATUS rectum, in conic sections, the same with parameter. See PArameter. LATUS transversum, in the hyperbola, that part of the transverse diameter, intercepted between the vertices of the two op posite sections. See HYPERBOLA.

LAVA, the production of Ætna, Vesuvius, Hecla, and other volcanoes, is of a greyish colour passing to green: it is spotted externally, and occurs porous, carious, or vesicular. Its lustre is vitreous, more or less glistering. It is moderately hard, brittle, easily frangible, and light. It generally attracts strongly the magnetic needle. It is easily fusible into a black, compact glass. It frequently encloses other fossiis, espe cially crystals of felspar, augite, hornblende, and leucite. See VOLCANIC formations.

LAVANDULA, in botany, lavender, a genus of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class and order. Natural order of Verticillatæ. Labiatæ, Jussien. Essential character: calyx ovate, obscurely toothed, supported by a bracte; corolla re-supine; stamina within the tube. There are seven species, of which L. spica, common lavender, has a shrubby stem much branched, frequently five or six feet high, with numerous hoary leaves, the upper ones sessile, the lower petioled; the flowers are produced in terminating spikes from the young shoots, on long peduncles; the spikes are composed of interrupted whorls, in which the flowers are from six to ten, the lower whorls more remote; each flower upright, on a short pedicel; the usual colour of the corolla is blue, sometimes varying with white flowers; the whole plant is covered with a down, composed of forked hairs. It is a native of the south of Europe, and has long been celebrated for its virtues in nervous disorders; the officinal preparations of lavender, are the essential oil, a simple spirit, and a compound tincture.

LAVATERA, in botany, so named from

mentator defined to be " a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power in a state; commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong." The latter clause of this sentence seems to Mr. Christian to be either superfluous or defective. If we attend to the learned judge's exposition, perhaps we may be inclined to use the words "establishing and ascertaining what is right or wrong," and all cavil or difficulty will vanish.

Every law may be said to consist of several parts; declaratory, whereby the rights to be observed, and the wrong, to be eschewed, are clearly defined and laid down: directory, whereby the subject of a state is instructed and enjoined to observe those rights, and to abstain from the commission of those wrongs: remedial, whereby a method is pointed out to recover a man's private rights or redress his private wrongs; vindicatory, which imposes the sanction whereby it is signified what evil or penalty shall be incurred by such as commit any public wrongs, and transgress or neglect any duty.

Laws are arbitrary or positive, and natural; the last of which are essentially just and good, and bind every where and in all places where they are observed: arbitrary laws are either concerning such matter as is in itself morally indifferent, in which case both the law and the matter, and subject of it, are likewise indifferent, or concerning the natural law itself, and the regulating thereof; and all arbitrary laws are founded in convenience, and depend upon the authority of the legislative power which appoints and makes them, and are for maintaining public order; those which are natural laws are from God; but those which are arbitrary, are properly human and positive institutions.

The laws of any country began, when there first began to be a state in the land; and we may consider the world as one universal society, and then that law by which nations where governed, is called jus gentium; if we consider the world as made up of particular nations, the law which regulates the public order and right of them, is termed Jus publicum; and that law which determines the private rights of men, is called jus civile.

No law can oblige a people without their consent, this consent is either verbis or factis, i. e. it is expressed by writing, or implied by deeds and actions; and where a law is grounded on an implied assent, rebus et

fuctis, it is either common law or custom; if it is universal, it is common law; and if particular to this or that place, then it is custom.

The law in this land hath been variable; the Roman laws, were in use anciently in Britain, when the Romans had several colonies here, each of which was governed by the Roman laws: afterwards we had the laws called Merchenlage, West Saxonlage, and Danelage; all reduced into a body, and made one by King Edward the Confessor.

At present the laws of England are divided into three parts: 1. The common law, which is the most ancient and general law of the realm, and common to the whole kingdom, being appropriate thereto, and having no dependence upon any foreign law, whatsoever.

2. Statutes or acts of parliament, made and passed by the King, Lords, and Commons in Parliament; being a reserve for the government to provide against new mischiefs arising through the corruption of the times. And by this the common law is amended where defective, for the suppression of public evils; though where the common law and statute law concur or interfere, the common law shall be preferred.

3. Particular customs. These must be particular, for a general custom is part of the common law of the land.

Blackstone divides the municipal law of England into two kinds, lex non scripta, the unwritten or common law; and the lex scripta, the written, that is, the statute law.

The lex non scripta, or unwritten law, includes not only general customs, or the common law properly so called; but also the particular customs of certain parts of the kingdom; and likewise those particular laws, that are by custom observed only in certain courts and jurisdictions.

There is another division of our laws; more large and particular; as into the prerogative or crown law, the law and custom of parliament, the common law, the statute law, reasonable customs, the law of arms, war, and chivalry, ecclesiastical or canon law, civil law, in certain courts and cases, forest law, the law of marque and reprisal, the law of merchants, the law and privilege of the stannaries, &c. But this large division may be reduced to the common division; and all is founded on the law of nature and reason, and the revealed law of God, as all other laws ought to be.

The law of nature is that which God, at