the application of names. Some ingenious writers on this subject have observed certain letters applied to denote a certain class of ideas, which have some common features of resemblance, and have inferred that those letters were significant of that common feature; e. g. that c denotes hollowness. This particular coincidence arises probably from the circumstance, that the original word denoting hollowness, which has entered variously modified into the words in question, was c with some vocal sound. This appears to be the extent of the inferrence which may be justly drawn; that it was so applied, but not that the sound was significant of the idea. We are accustomed to use sounds in particular connections with such regularity and constancy, that they appear to have a significa tion of themselves considered; but this inference arises from inattention to the matter of fact. Frequently from our acquaint. ance with the sense, we read a combination of words as the sense dictates, and suppose the imitation in the words, which really exists only in our mode of enunciation; but these instances, however just, afford no ground for argument in the present discussion, which refers only to single words: and with respect to them we cannot but confine the resemblance of their sound to their sense, to cases in which they denote sound or motion usually accompanied with sound. 13. The chief importance of the inquiry whether the original words of language were long, is principally confined to that language in which the transition took place from hieroglyphics to letters. This is usually supposed to have been the Egyptian; but as of this language only a few words are preserved in the Coptic, (of which however a large proportion are monosyllables) we may make the inquiry more general. Lord Monboddo supposes, that the first articulate sounds were imitations of the cries of animals, and that consequently they were of great length," for such cries of almost all animals have a certain tract or extension: and that we may not think man an exception to this rule, we need only attend to the dumb persons among us, who utter inarticulate cries, sometimes very loud, but always of considerable length." Leaving the latter argument, which surely is nothing to the purpose, we may observe, that if the cries of animals were imitated to denote those animals, great length of words was unnecessary and improbable : unnecessary, because one or two distinct articulations would usually answer every purpose; improbable, because articulation is difficult. If we extend the principle of imitation farther, and suppose the cries of animals imitated by man in order to express feeling merely, his cries would surely be undeserving the name of words, and at any rate would throw no light on our inquiries. The theory of long words appears to derive confirmation from the vocabularies of the North American Indians. For instance, of three which are given by Mackenzie, two appear to be composed of words of from two to seven syllables, with scarcely any words of one syllable. The third, however, is composed principally of words of one or two syllables. With respect to the former, even where the words actually denote sensible objects, our inference that they are uncompounded should be cautiously drawn. The moon is expressed by two words, tibiscapesim, night-sun; and several others appear to be circumlocutions. The catholic savages on the river St. Lawrence call the priest, the master of life's man; and it is very probable that, in uncultivated nations, names of new objects would, where possible, be formed rather by significant combinations of words in use, than by the formation of new words. Thus we learn from Mr. Parke, that the Mandingo nation use the following (among many) circumlocutions: fruit is eree-ding, child of the tree; finger, boullakon ding, child of the hand or arm; noon teeleekoniata, the sun over head; brother, ba ding kea, mother's male child; proud, telingabalid, straight-bodied; angry jusu bota, the heart comes out; we think it almost unnecessary to remark, how much the last two instances countenance the positions before laid down, respecting the transference of names from external to internal things. 14. The words which Lord Monboddo adduces in proof of his opinion are, wonnaweucktuckluit, much, and mikkeuawkrook, little, from the Esquimaux; and poellarrarorincourac, three, among some South American Indians. The above examples lead us to class the two former among the descriptive circumlocutions with which all languages are filled. With respect to the last, we may observe that the names of numbers were probably originally significant in all languages; and that the length of those names would depend upon the length of the original words, and the manner of combining them: thus, six is among the Kamschatkans expressed by innen- milchin, that is, five and one. Numbers are so familiar to us, and so distinctly arranged in groups, that perhaps in no case are our ideas more clear; but this clearness entirely depends upon the distinctness of the signs, and of the manner of using them. We speak of ten and twenty, &c. and all seems very clear; but it is evident if we attempt to form a conception of ten or twenty things, we must pass over every one singly, and endeavour to combine them by pro. cesses which will be varied by the habits of the individual. If we give a fresh name to every group of objects, and then consider those groups as units, and so on, we are capable of extending our ideas of number indefinitely, and of speaking and think ing of them with accuracy: but if the small extent of intellect, or the circumstances of situation, prevents this grouping, and our attention be confined to individuals, our arithmetic must be very confined. Those nations which reckon only by comparison with their fingers without grouping numbers, carry their ideas of number no farther than ten; those who take in the toes, go as far as twenty. The Kamschatkans can count no farther; and when they have advanced to this limit, they say, " where shall we go now?" It is difficult to conceive what circumstances could bound the arithmetic of Lord Monboddo's Indians to three, or rather what should induce them to choose so troublesome a mode of procedure; but it appears highly probable that they joined together the names of three different men or other animals, and if they had proceeded further (which however Condamine informs us they did not) they would have joined four together, &c. Perhaps their tribe originally consisted of three only; and then in order to speak of three they might use the three names combined together, which combination, losing its primary application, would become a general denotement of three. 15. If Lord Monboddo had looked into the vocabulary of the Mexicans, he would have thought that his theory derived great confirmation from their words. Clavizego in forms us, that they had words of fifteen or sixteen syllables: but he expressly says they are compounds. He gives one as a specimen of their combinations, riz. not lazomahuitzteopixcatalzin: this signifies my very worthy father or revered priest, and is compounded of seven words. The language of the Mexicans is very copious; and one cause of the length of their words is probably the deficiency of consonants, which renders a combination of sounds necessary for distinctness. After all, we may admit that the languages of the American Indians favour the hypothesis of long words without any injury, for among them alphabetical writing never existed; and we should have enlarged less on this point, if it had not led us to notice some curious procedures of language: but it seems reasonable to admit, as an inference, that the original or rather the secondary words in language might be long, though not to the degree that Monboddo supposes. When, however, we advance further, and inquire of what kind the original words of man really were, we see sufficient reason to conclude them to be short. Language was first used in the east, and there too writing was invented. Be sides the evidence to be derived from the ancient Egyptian (§ 13), we may cite the following. The Chinese, which as far as oral language is concerned, appears to have undergone very little alteration, and to be nearly an original language, is composed entirely of what are at present monosyllables. The original words of the Hebrew, Greek, &c. (that is, those which have not been varied by the addition of other words) are short, frequently only of one syllable, seldom of more than two. And to conclude, of the various vocabularies which we have had an opportunity of consulting, of the uncivilized nations of the east, the words are generally monosyllabic, or dissyllabic. 16. Our last object is to consider the position, that, in the early languages, consonant sounds were at least generally ac companied by vowel sounds: but though this is a material point in tracing the transition from hieroglyphics to alphabetical writing, it will not be necessary to enlarge much upon it. We think this position proved by the following, in some measure unconnected, considerations. 1. Vowelsounds are by far the most easy; and consequently they constitute the earliest vocal sounds of children, and a large proportion of the vocal sounds of uncivilized nations. Several words among the South Sea islanders are composed entirely of vowel sounds; and so great is the difficulty which these people find in pronouncing consonants together, that they called Sir Joseph Banks, Opuno. From this consideration we may fairly infer, that vowel sounds would be frequent in the original words of the early languages, which were formed before articulation was become easy. Yet 2, as the shades of distinction between them, when employed alone or together, are too nice to furnish, at least to the unpractised ear, many obviously different words; and as man was not at first in that low state of intellect in which he has sometimes appeared, a vocabulary formed of such sounds would be very inadequate to his wants; and therefore we must suppose that in the early languages there would be very few words without consonant sounds. 3. Some of the first articulations of man were, with out doubt, employed in naming those of the inferior animals with which he was concerned. Now their names would almost certainly be given from their distinguishing cries; and the cries of such animals consist of consonant sounds, each followed by a vowel sound. 4. As articulation would at first be nearly as difficult as we now perceive it to be in children, the first words would be composed of simple articulations, that is, of consonant sounds following each by a vowel; and new words would be formed by the combination of such words: so that in the early languages all compounds would be formed by the combination of simple articulations. 5. The greater part of consonant sounds cannot be sounded singly without vowels, nor together, without vowels intervening. In many cases this is evident to the ear; and where it is not perceived, it often is the fact, though the acquired rapidity of utterance may render it very little perceptible. 6. Some languages do not admit of any two consonant sounds together. The Tartar language always requires a vowel between two consonants. The Russian, we believe, does the same. The Chinese never join two consonants, unless we must except ng; but this appears to be only a simple sound, though represented by two of our letters. With respect to the Chinese the point is of because there is great reason to believe that they came from the stock of the Egyptians, before there had been any considerable addition to their vocabulary by combinations of sounds, and before the transition had been made from hierogly. phical to alphabetical writing. It is true many of the Chinese words end in consonants, which seems to render improbable the position advanced: but it is to be observed that in such cases the words should be considered as of two syllables; for it is impossible, in continued speaking, to utter consequence; a complete consonant sound at the end of a word, without emitting a vowel sound. 7. That the Hebrew, which is to be considered as a representative of all the cognate eastern languages, never sounded a consonant without a vowel, may be inferred from this circumstance, that those who invented denotements of vowel sounds, while at least the leading features of the pronunciation remained, thought it necessary to add, or suppose understood, a vowel sound after every consonant. Respecting the Chinese language our readers will find many particulars in the article before referred to, viz. WRITING, origin of, alphabetical. LANIARD, a short piece of rope or line fastened to several machines in a ship, and serving to secure them in a particular place, or to manage them more conveniently; such are the laniards of the gun-ports, the laniard of the buoy, the laniard of the cathook, &c. The principal laniards used in a ship are those employed to extend the shrouds and stays of the masts by their communication with the dead-eyes and hearts, so as to form a sort of mechanical power, resembling that of a tackle LANIUS, the shrike, in natural history, a genus of birds of the order Picæ. Generic character: bill straightish, with a tooth or notch near the end of the upper mandible; the tongue jagged at the end; outer toe connected with the middle one so far as the first joint. These birds are ranked by Gmelin with the Accipitres, and have been by others placed in the order Passeres; according to Kramer, Scopoli, and Pennant, however, they most appropriately attach to the Pica. There are, according to Gmelin, fifty-six species. Latham enumerates fortynine, of which it will be sufficient to notice the following: L. excubitor, the great shrike, is about the length of ten inches, and found in France in great numbers, but rare in England. It subsists on insects and small birds, seizing the last by the throat and strangling them, and then fixing them on a thorn, from which it tears them piecemeal and devours them. To decoy them within its reach it imitates the songs of many birds, which approach, delighted by the sounds, and unsuspicious of the danger. It is a favourite bird with husbandmen, as it is considered by them a mortal enemy to rats, mice, and other species of vermin. It, however, prefers mountainous and secluded situations to the neighbourhood of mankind. It appears contented in confinement, but is completely silent in it with respect to any song. It may often be perceived to hang its food, before devouring it, on the wires of its cage. See Aves, Plate VIII. fig. 4. L. colluris, or the red-backed shrike, is much more frequently to be met with in this country than the last species. It is particularly fond of grasshoppers and beetles, which, as indeed various other articles of its food, it will stick upon a thorn. The manners of this species and the last are, in fact, extremely similar. It imitates the sounds of other birds to decoy them to destruction. During incubation, the female discovers herself to any person approaching her nest by violent clamours of alarm. In St. Domingo there is a species of these birds daring in the extreme, particularly in the breeding season, in which they will attack every bird that approaches, without hesitation or distinction. In Carolina there is another species equally intrepid and ferocious. They will assail the crow, and even the eagle if it attempts to intrude upon their premises, collecting in considerable -numbers against the aggressor, and seldom failing to make him repent of his temerity. These are denominated the tyrants of Carolina. LANTANA, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and order. Natural order of Personatæ. Vitices, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx obscurely, four-toothed; stigma hook, refracted; drupe with a two-celled nucleus. There are nineteen species. These are mostly shrubs, very few being herbaceous. The branches are quadrangular; the leaves opposite, in pairs, except in a few cases, where there are three or four together, ovate and wrinkled; flowers aggregate, in axillary and peduncled heads, each flower bracted. LANTERLOO, or Loo, a game at cards, played several ways, whereof we shall only mention two. The first way is this: lift for dealing, and the best put carries it: as many may play as the cards will permit; five being dealt to each, and then turning up trump. Now, if three, four, five, or six play, they may lay out the threes, fours, fives, sixes, and sevens, to the intent they may not be quickly looed; or if they would have the loos come fast about, then they are to play with the whole pack. Having dealt, set up five scores, or chalks. Then ask every one, beginning with the eldest in hand, whether they will play, or pass from the benefit of the game; and here it is to be observed that the cards have the same values as in honours. You may play upon every card what sum you please, from a penny to a pound; and if looed, that is, win never a trick, you must lay down to the stock so much for your five cards, as you played upon every one of them. Every deal rub off a score, and for every trick you win set up a score, till the first scores are out; then counting your scores, or the numbers of the tricks you have won, you are to take from the stock in proportion to the value. A flush, or five cards of a suit, looes all the other hands, and sweeps the board; and if there be two flushes, the eldest in hand hath the advantage: the knave of clubs, called paam, has this privilege, that he makes a suit with any other cards, and saves the person who has him from being looed. The other way is this: the dealer lays down so much for every card as the company please to play for; and the cards being dealt, all must play; if any be looed, they must each lay down so much as the cards are valued at, for their loo; and if the person next dealing be looed, he must lay down double the said sum, viz. one for dealing, and the other for his loo. In case of a loo, the gamesters are asked whether they will play or not, beginning at the eldest hand; but if there is no loo they must all play as at first; and this necessity they justly call force. If there be never a lao the money may be divided by the gamesters, according to the number of their tricks, or left till one be looed, as they shall judge proper. LANTERN, magic, an optic machine, whereby little painted images are represented so much magnified as to be accounted the effect of magic by the ignorant. See OPTICS. The contrivance is briefly this: ABCD (Plate VIII. Miscel. fig. 1.) is a tin lantern, from whose side there proceeds a square tube b n k l m c, consisting of two parts; the outermost of which, n k l m, slides over the other so as that the whole tube may be lengthened or shortened by that means. In the end of the arm, n k l m, is fixed a convex glass, kl; about de there is a contrivance for admitting and placing an object, de, painted in dilute and transparent colours, on a plane thin glass; which object is there to be placed inverted. This is usually some ludicrous or frightful representation, the more to divert the spectators; bhe is a deep convex glass placed in the other end of the prominent tube, the only use of which is to cast the light of the flame, a, strongly on the picture, de, painted. on the plain thin glass. Hence, if the object, de, be placed further from the glass, kl, than its focus, it is manifest that the distinct image of the object will be projected by the glass, kl, on the opposite white wall, FH, at fg; and that in an erect posture: so that, in effect, this appearance of the magic lautern is the same with that of the camera obscura, or darkened room; since here the chamber, E F G H, is supposed quite dark, excepting the light in the lantern ABCD. And here we may observe, that if the tube bnklme, be contracted, and thereby the glass, kl, brought nearer the object, de, the representation, fg, will be projected so much the larger, and so much the more distant from the glass kl; so that the smallest picture at de may be projected at ƒg in any greater proportion required, within due limits: whence it is, that this lantern got the name of lanterna megalographica. On the other hand, protracting the tube will diminish the object. Instead of the convex glass to heighten the light, some prefer a concave speculum, its focus being nearer than that of a lens ; and in this focus they place the candle. LAPIDARY style denotes the style proper for monumental or other inscriptions; being a sort of medium between prose and verse. The jejune and brilliant are here equally to be avoided. Cicero has prescribed the rules of this style. "Accedat, oportet oratio varia, vehemens, plena spiritûs. Omnium sententiarum gravitate, omnium verborum ponderibus, est utendum." The lapidary style, which was lost with the ancient monuments, is now used in various ways, at the beginning of books; and even epistles dedicatory are composed in it, whereof we have no example among the ancients. LAPIS lazuli. See LAZURSTEIN. LAPIS infernalis. See LUNAR caustic. LAPLISIA, in natural history, sea-hare, a genus of the Vermes Mollusca class and order. Body creeping, covered with reflected membranes, with a membranaceous shield on the back, covering the lungs; aperture placed on the right side, vent above the extremity of the back; four feelers, resembling ears. There are two species, viz. L. depilans; body pale-lead colour, immaculate, it inhabits the European seas; from two to five inches long; is extremely nauVOL. IV. seous and fetid, and is said to cause the hair to fall off from the hands of those who touch it. L. fasciata, black; the edges of the membranaceous covering, and of the feelers scarlet; it inhabits the shores of Barbary, among rocks; when touched it discharges a black and red sanies, which, however, is neither fetid nor depilatory like the last. It is frequently to be met with off Anglesea. LAPPAGO, in botany, a genus of the Triandria Digynia class and order. Natural order of Gramina. There is but one species. LAPSANA, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Equalis class and order. Natural order of Compositæ, Semiflosculosi. Cichoracea, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx calycled; each of the inner scales channelled; receptacle naked. There are five species, of which L. communis, common nipple-wort, is very abundant all over Europe in hedges, shady, and waste places and cultivated ground; flowering in the summer months. Nature has amply supplied the want of that down to the seed with which most of this class are furnished, by the great abundance which every plant produces. LAPSED legacy, is where the legatee dies before the testator, or where a legacy is given upon a future contingency, and the legatee dies before the contingency happens. As if a legacy is given to a persou when he attains the age of twenty-one years, and the legatee dies before that age; in this case, the legacy is a lost or lapsed legacy, and shall sink into the residuum of the personal estate. LARCENY is the felonious and fraudulent taking away of the personal goods of another, against his will, with intent to steal them. If the goods are above the value of 12d., it is called grand larceny; if of that value, or under, it is petit larceny: which two species are distinguished in their punishment, but not otherwise. The mind, or intention, of the act alone makes the taking of another's goods felony, or a bare trespass only; but as the variety of circumstances is so great, and the complications thereof are so mingled, it is impossible to prescribe all the circumstances evidencing a felonious intent, or the contrary. As all felony includes trespass, every indictment must have the words feloniously took, as well as carried away; whence it follows, that if the party be guilty of no trespass in taking the goods, he cannot be F |