flower five-parted, superior; corolla bellshaped; berry dry, three-celled. There is but one species, viz. L. borealis, two-flowered linnæa, a native of the north of Europe.

LINNÆUS, CHARLES, (Carl von Linné) the most eminent naturalist of this age, and the founder of modern botany, was born in 1707, at Rashult, in the province of Smaland, in Sweden, where his father resided as assistant minister to the parish of Stenbrohult. The father, Nils, who was the son of a peasant named Bengtson, had, on going into orders, assumed the name of Linnæus, which was therefore the proper name of young Charles. Nils was attached to the culture of his garden, which he had stocked with some of the rarer plants in that climate, and it is to the delight with which this spot inspired Charles, from his earliest childhood, that he himself ascribes his botanical passion. A remarkable quickness of sight, a hardy constitution, and a retentive memory, gave him the corporeal and mental requisites for indulging his disposition, and thus he was marked out for a naturalist almost from his cradle. His father intending him for his own profession, sent him to the grammar school at Wexio at the age of ten, whence he was removed at the age of seventeen years to the higher seminary, called the gymnasium. In neither of these situations was he distinguished for his proficiency in the ordinary studies of a literary education; but he made a rapid progress in the knowledge of plants, which he ardently pursued, both by frequent excursions in the fields, and by the unwearied perusal of such books on the subject as he was able to procure. When his father, in 1726, came to Wexio for the purpose of inquiring into his improvement, he was much mortified to find his son declared utterly unfit for a learned profession by tutors, who advised that he should be put to some handicraft trade. In this perplexity he applied to the physician, Rothman, who was also lecturer in natural philosophy, the only branch of academic study for which young Linnæus had shewn any inclination. This person discovered in him talents, which though not fitted to make him a theologian, were not ill adapted for another profession, and he proposed that of physic. As the father's circumstances were very narrow, Rothman offered to take the youth gratuitously into his own house during the year that remained for him to finish his course in the gymnasium; he also gave him private

instructions in physiology, and put him into a systematic method of studying botany, according to Tournefort's arrangement, which was then looked upon as the most scientific.

In 1727, Linnæus was entered at the University of Lund; he lodged in the house of Stobaeus, a physician, who possessed a good library and museum of natural history. He appears here to have paid for his entertainment by various little services, such as that of forming a hortus siccus, and acting as an amanuensis. It was, however, only by accident that his host came to know the extent of his studious ardour. The mother of Stobaeus having observed that the candle in his chamber was burning at unseasonable hours, was induced, through fear of fire, to complain of it to her son. Stobous thereupon entered his chamber at a late hour, and found him diligently occupied with reading. Struck with this proof of his thirst after improvement, he gave Linnæus the free use of his library, and admission to his table. The advice of Rothman, however, caused the young student, in 1728, to quit Lund, and to remove to Upsal for the sake of the superior advantages it afforded. His father advanced him the sum of about eight pounds sterling, which he was informed was all the paternal assistance he was to expect. Thus he was turned out upon the world while yet but a learner in the profession by which he was to get his bread. His little patrimony was soon exhausted, and he was reduced to depend upon chance for a meal. Unable to pay even for the mending of his shoes, he was obliged to patch them himself with folded paper, and notwithstanding his sanguine temper, he could not forbear repenting that he had left his comfortable situation at Lund.

At length, in the autumn of 1729, as he was intently examining some plants in the university garden, he was accosted by Dr. Olof Celsius, professor of divinity, and an eminent naturalist, who was then engaged in preparing a work on the plants mentioned in the scripture. A little conversation soon apprised him of the extraordinary botanical acquisitions of the student, and perceiving his necessitous circumstances, he took him to live in his own house. It was in this year that an account in the Leipsic Commentaries of Vaillant's Treatise on the Sexes of Plants, engaged him in an accurate examination of the stamina and pistils of flowers, and finding a great variety of structure, he conceived the idea of a

new systematic arrangement, founded on the sexual parts. He drew up a treatise on this principle, which was shewn to Celsius, and by him to the botanical professor, Rudbeck, who had the liberality to bestow on it his warmest approbation. As the professor's advanced age made him desirous of a deputy in the office of lecturing, Linnæus, in 1730, was appointed to this office, and was also taken by Rudbeck into his own house as tutor to his sons.

The court of Sweden having issued an order that the academy at Upsal should send a proper person to travel through Lapland, Linnæus, who had a strong inclination to visit that country, was chosen for the office. He set out in May, 1732, very slenderly provided as a scientific traveller, all his baggage with himself being carried on a single horse. This tour would have been much more interesting to science had it been taken when he was further advanced in his studies, and better equipped for making observations. Its chief fruits were a "flora lapponica," and some curious mediand economical facts.

Having learnt the art of assaying metals at the mines of Calix, he gave lectures on that subject and mineralogy in general, after his return. He improved himself in this branch of knowledge by a visit to the mining country round Fahlun, at the end of 1733. He found, however, that a doctor's degree would be necessary to his further advancement, and in order to obtain this, money was necessary. For this purpose he was advised by a friend to turn his thoughts towards a matrimonial connection with some lady of fortune, and having an introduction to the family of Moræus, the town physician of Fahlun, he ventured to make his addresses to his eldest daughter Elizabeth, and was favourably received. His índigent circumstances gave him little hopes of obtaining the father's consent; but to his surprise he only required a delay until his exertions should open a path to a comfortable settlement. Linnæus therefore resolved to travel in quest of fortune and a degree, and having accumulated his little savings, to which were added those of his faithful Elizabeth, he set out for Holland in the spring of 1735.

At Harderwyck, as the cheapest university, he took the degree of doctor of physic, maintaining for his thesis, "Nova Hypothesis Febrium Intermittentium." He visited Leyden and Amsterdam, and was particularly noticed by Dr. John Frederic

Gronovius, who, upon being shewn in manuscript the first sketch of the "Systema Naturæ," requested it might be printed at his own expense. This was accordingly done at Leyden, in 1735, in a tabular form occupying twelve folio pages. By the advice of Gronovius he waited on Boerhaave, who, en conversing with him, became sensible of his singular attainments in botany, and advised him to remain in Holland. Munificence was not among that great man's excellencies, and a verbal message, by way of introduction to Burmann at Amsterdam, was the principal favour that Linnæus received from him. That eminent botanist, who was there engaged on his work on the plants of Ceylon, took the Swede into his house, and treated him with great liberality. His library and collections were of much use to Linnæus, who there published his excellent work, the "Fundamenta Botanica," the basis of his system. While he was in this situation, Mr. Clifford, an opulent merchant of Amsterdam, who had a fine garden of exotics, having heard of the merit of Linnæus from Boerhaave, prevailed upon Burmann to part with him, and took him to his country house at Hartecamp, near Haerlem.

In 1736 Linnæus, at Mr. Clifford's expence, paid a visit to England. There were at that time few distinguished botanists in this country, and Dillenius was the person whom he was most desirous of seeing; Linnæus went to him at Oxford, and at first met with a cool reception, the old botanist having been offended with some of his innovations: after a little conversation, however, he liked him so well, that he detained him a month, and strongly urged him to take up his abode at Oxford and share his salary as professor. Dr. Shaw, the traveller, Martyn, Miller, and Collinson, also showed him much civility; but Sir Hans Sloane did not pay the attention to him which might have been expected from such a votary of natural history. Linnæus returned to Holland enriched with many new plants for Clifford's garden, the description of which, under the title of "Hortus Cliffortianus," appeared in a splendid publication in 1737, drawn up by him and arranged according to his new system. He had already, in the same year, presented to the botanical world the essence of that system in the first edition of his "Genera Plantarum."

In the year 1738, having received intelligence that he was in danger of being

rivalled in his pretensions to his mistress, by the influence another had obtained with her father, he thought it necessary no longer to delay his return. As soon, therefore, as he was able, after his recovery from a severe illness, he took his way through the Low Countries to Paris. At that capital he had recommendations to the Jussieus, who received him with great kindness, and made him known to Reaumur and other eminent naturalists, and showed him all the curiosities of the place. At a visit to the Academy of Sciences, it was announced to him that he was elected a corresponding member. The attachment of the French to the method of their eminent countryman, Tournefort, was unfavourable to the reception of the Linnæan system among them, but he had reason to be satisfied with the personal attention which he experienced. At Rouen he embarked for Sweden, where, on his arrival, he immediately proceeded to Fahlun, and was formally betrothed to the object of his affections. In the month of September he went to Stockholm, in order to try his fortune as a physician; but he found that his fame as a botanist had either not reached thither, or was of no service to him as a practitioner. At length, however, he obtained the confidence of some young men of rank, who gave him considerable employment. A private meeting of men of science being formed in the capital, Linnæus was made an associate, and had the precedency for the first three months: this institution was the parent of the Royal Academy of Stockholm. His reputation made him known to Count Tessin, Marshal of the Diet, by whose influence a salary was conferred upon him, with the condition of his giving public lectures on botany in the summer, and on mineralogy in the winter. That nobleman also procured for him the post of Physician to the Navy, and gave him a general invitation to his table. His affairs now wore so prosperous an aspect, that he would no longer delay his union with his betrothed Anna-Elizabeth Moræa, and they married in June, 1739.

The death of Rudbeck, professor of botany at Upsal, in 1740, opened to Linnæus a prospect of the literary situation which had always been the object of his wishes, in which he might devote himself entirely to the improvement of natural history, uninterrupted by the cares of medical practice. He had, however, a competitor, Rousen, this ancient rival and antagonist, whose superior academical claims obtained the

preference. But the resignation of Rouberg, the medical professor, having made another vacancy, that chair was given to Linnæus, with the condition that he and Rousen should divide the business of the two professorships between them; and to the former were allotted the departments of the botanic garden, materia medica, simiology, diætetics, and natural history in general. Before his removal to Upsal, he was engaged by the States to travel through the southern provinces of Sweden, for the purpose of collecting such information as might tend to the improvement of agriculture and manufactures. In this tour he was accompanied by six pupils, and he performed the task to the satisfaction of the States: its result was printed. He entered on his professorship in the autumn of 1741, on which occasion he pronounced a Latin oration "On the necessity of travelling one's own country." His own past exertions in this respect rendered it a very entertaining and interesting composition. In the same year he made the tour of the islands of Oeland and Gothland, by order of the States; and in subsequent years he travelled, by the same requisition, through West Gothland and Scania. Exclusive of these exertions his abode was henceforth fixed at Upsal, and the remaining history of his life is only that of his literary and scientific labours, and of the honours and distinctions which were accumulated upon him.

In

One of his first cares was to improve and new model the academic garden. He procured the erection of several new buildings, arranged the plants according to his own system, and founded a museum of natural history in part of the green-house. 1745 he published the first edition of his "Flora Succica," an admirable specimen of a local catalogue, and the pattern of all those which have since been made upon the Linnæan system. In the next year appeared his “Fauna Suecica," or Catalogue of the Animal Kingdom in Sweden, arranged also according to his own method. In the numerous and difficult class of insects he adopted an entirely new method of arrangement, which has been adopted by most later entomologists. His merits, indeed, with respect to this class of natural productions, stands next to those with respect to the vegetable productions. The same accurate inspection was requisite in both, and from the immense number of subjects in each, it was equally necessary in both to search out for minute diversities

whereon to found an artificial classification. The credit he was now acquiring in his own country appeared in his election to the post of Secretary to the Academy of Sciences at Upsal, in a medal of him struck at the expence of some noblemen in 1746, and in his nomination by the king to the rank and title of archiater, in 1747. He now also began to exert his influence in procuring the mission of his young disciples to different parts of the globe, in order to make discoveries in natural history and œconomy; a circumstance by which he is distinguished above all other naturalists, and which has redounded equally to his own glory, and to the public advantage. The travels of Kalm, of Osbeck, of Hasselquist, of Lofling, were the fruits of his zeal in this point. To Linnæus may also be ascribed that curious collection of treatises, which, under the name of "Amænitates Academicæ," began to be published in the year 1749, and were continued to a number of volumes. They are academical theses held under Linnæus in his professional capacity, and may be regarded as containing his own doctrines and opinions on most of the points discussed.

The work of Linnæus, which Haller terms his "Maximus Opus et Æternum," appeared in 1753. It was the "Species Plantarum," in two volumes, 8vo. containing a description of every known plant, ⚫ arranged according to his sexual system. The description, however, is independent of any system, as being founded on the essential character of each species, with a further reference to the generic description given in the "Genera Plantarum." In this publication Linnæus first introduced his admirable invention of trivial names, or epithets taken from the most prominent specific mark of the subject, or from some other characteristic circumstance. The specific descriptions are given in the precise form of a definition, with a great variety of terms of his own invention, simple and compound, forming, as it were, a new botanical language. If in these terms be has not aimed at a classical purity, he has in general formed them upon correct analogy; and it cannot be denied that they are excellently adapted for their purpose. In the same year he was created by the king a Knight of the Polar Star, an honour which had never before been conferred on a literary character. His elevation to the rank of nobility, by the king's sign manual, took place eight years after, in 1761, but antedated 1757, and from that time he wrote

his name C. Von Linné. In the mean time honours of a literary kind had been accumulating upon him from foreign countries. Besides many learned societies of inferior rank, he was aggregated to the Imperial Academy, to the Societies of Berlin, London, and to the Academy, and finally was nominated one of the eight foreign members of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, being the first Swede that had obtained that distinction. The remote city of Upsal was visited by many strangers, attracted by his reputation, which extended throughout Europe, and the number of students in its university was doubled. His correspon. dence included almost all the eminent cultivators of natural history; and he was continually receiving from all parts tributes of books, plants, and specimens which enabled him to complete his vast plan of carrying a new systematic arrangement through every department of nature. This he effected by the completion of his great work, "Systema Naturæ," which had grown in successive editions from a few tables to two, and finally, to three volumes, and received his finishing hand in 1768. In this performance Linnæus is the methodiser, and the nomenclator of all the known productions of the three kingdoms of nature. His classifications are all so far artificial, that he constitutes divisions and subdivisions from minute qualities in the subject, which serve very well as external marks, but frequently have little relation to its essential character, and therefore bring together things in their nature very dissimilar. They are framed, however, with wonderful inge. nuity, and have undoubtedly produced a more accurate indentification in all the branches of natural history than before prevailed. This is the first step to an exact history of any subject, and it is ignorance that treats it with contempt as a mere nomenclature. Although arrangement was the point at which Linnæus peculiarly laboured, yet many of his smaller works prove his great attention to matters of use and curiosity; and no school has contributed so much to a thorough knowledge of the productions of nature as the Linnæan. With regard to the particular parts of his system, the botanical was the most generally received, and bids the fairest for duration. The entomological, though possessing great excellence, has in some measure been abrogated by the more comprehensive but more difficult method of Fabricius. Those in the other branches of zoology are gene.