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ARTICLE. adjunct, forms in fact a proposition, in which the par-
ticiple of existence is either expressed or understood,
and which involves a relation to something before said
by the speaker, or which is supposed to pass in the
mind of the speaker. Thus, yépwv signifies generally
"old man;
but yepw' is equivalent to o, yépwv
wv, where the pronoun ", "this", implies that the old
man now spoken of has been mentioned before, or that
he is in some way or other known to the hearer or
the speaker.


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The identity of the article with the pronoun is very
conspicuous in the language of Homer; as in the
expressions O. yàp Baσini xoλweis, 'O d'ijïe, &c.
And in almost every instance, where it occurs in his
poems, it may be explained as a pronoun. In the
words ὁ γὰρ ἦλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν, it is acknow-
ledged that is a pronoun. Why then should it be
supposed to change its nature upon the addition of
épw in the phrase o yàp 0e yépwv It is plain,
that in the first case, the pronoun is used by itself,
with reference to the word yépwv understood; and in
the second, that word is added, to make the reference
more clear. The pronominal use of the article, or
rather the use of the pronoun, without an adjunct was
common in the Ionic dialect, long after the age of
Homer.

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The principal difficulty, concerning the Greek arti-
cle, relates to its usage with proper names, and with
the names of abstract ideas. The only way in which
we can account for its being used with proper names,
is to suppose, that the speaker first uses the pronomi-
nal article, as a designation of the person of whom he
is speaking, and then subjoins the name itself, by way
of explanation to his hearers; thus in Homer, when
the poet says ονεκα τὸν—ᾐτίμησε, he knows of whom
he is speaking; but because his reader does not know,
he recollects himself, as it were, and adds Xpvoŋv-
Ούνεκα τὸν Χρύσην τίμησε, him, that is to say,
Chryses." For, in fact, the name is added to define
the article; and not the article to define the name.
It appears then, that, generally speaking, the name
is necessary to the article, but not the article to the
name, except in cases of particular reference. The
poets therefore frequently omitted the article, in the
case of proper names, where a prose writer would
have used it; but did not insert it, where correctness
of language required its omission. The general rule
is, that with proper names the article is used, where
the same person has been recently mentioned, or is of
such notoriety, that the article may be supposed to
suggest his name to the hearer. The particular limi-
tations of this rule are ably stated and illustrated by
Bishop Middleton in his work on the Greek article.

With regard to its usage with the names of attri-
butes, the same learned writer observes, that in the
very few instances, where Homer employs abstract
terms, he employs them without the article; and that
it is inserted in later writers, 1. When the noun is
used in its most abstract sense. 2. When the attribute,
&c. is personified. 3. When the article is employed
in the sense of a possessive pronoun. 4. When there
is any reference.

It is obvious, from this brief statement of the nature
and use of the Greek article, that it was not employed
or neglected at random, without any alteration of or
influence upon the meaning of a sentence; and that,

VOL. XVII.

consequently, a proper attention should be paid to it ARTICLE.
by those who interpret any Greek author. In fact,
as the article involves in all cases a reference, it is
plain that it may oftentimes limit the sense of a
passage, and preclude all interpretations but one.
For a full view of the manner in which the doctrine
of the Greek article is to be applied to the criticism
of the New Testament, we refer the reader to the work
before mentioned.

It may be proper to observe, that in every lan-
guage which possesses an article, there is an evident
connexion between the article and the simplest form
of the pronoun. In Greek, o, os, ouros. In English,
the, this, that. In French, le, il, le, (him), and so
in the other European languages, and also in the
Arabic.

ARTICLES OF THE CLERGY, Articuli Cleri, are certain
statutes which were passed in the reign of Ed. II.
1316, for terminating the disputes between the tem-
poral and spiritual courts, respecting the limits of their
several jurisdictions.

ARTICLES OF FAITH, are certain points of doctrine,
which we are obliged to believe, as having been re-
vealed by God, and so declared to have been by the
church of which we are members.

ARTICLES OF LAMBETH, were nine articles on the
subject of predestination, and the limitation of saving
grace, which were drawn up by Arch. Whitgift, and
recommended to the attention of the students of Cam-
bridge, in consequence of some disputes which were
raised in the University, at that time, on the above-
mentioned points.
mentioned points. They were, however, merely de-
claratory of the doctrines of the church of England,
and were not imposed as of public authority. An
account of the 39 articles of the church of England
will be found in another part of the work. See GE-
NERAL INDEX.

ARTICLES, Statute of the Sex, or the Bloody Statute,
was an act for abolishing diversity of doctrine in cer-
tain articles of opinion concerning the Christian reli-
gion, 31 Henry VIII, c. 14. By this law the doctrine
of the real presence, the communion in one kind, the
perpetual obligation of vows of chastity, the utility of
private masses, the celibacy of the clergy, and the ne-
cessity of auricular confession, were confirmed; and
the denial of them made punishable with death.

ARTICLES OF WAR, are certain regulations for the
better government of the army in the United King-
dom and in foreign parts dependent on Great Bri-
tain. With respect to the army, these may be altered
at the king's pleasure, and they have the force of law
only in virtue of an annual act of Parliament, styled
the Mutiny Bill; but the Articles of War by which
the navy is regulated, are founded upon statutes which
are fixed, and in which every offence and the punish-
ment of it, are set down and defined by law.

ARTICLES, LORDS OF, were an ancient institution in
the history of the Scottish parliament appointed by
the king, whose business it was to prepare and digest
all matters that were to be laid before Parliament;
and that these lords possessed a virtual negative upon
all its proceedings, as no business could be proposed
or debated there, which had not previously received
their sanction.

ARTICLES OF DEATH, Articulus Mortes, the last pangs
or agony of a dying person are sometimes so called.

5 11

ARTILLERY.

ARTIL

telum.

ARTILLERY, barb. Lat. artillaria. Fr. artillerie. LERY. Caseneuve thinks it may be formed of arcus and Vossius from arcuaba. Menage and Du Cange from the old Fr. artiller, to render strong by art; from ars, artis.

Certes, I understond it in this wise, that I shall warnestore min hous with toures, swiche as han castelles and other manere edifices, and armure, and artelries, by which thinges I may my persone and myn hous so kepen and defenden, that min enemies shuln ben in drede min hous for to approche.

Chaucer. The Tale of Melibeus, v. ii. p. 100.
& vpo the morowe folowynge comaundyd all the armoure and
artylery belongyng vnto ye towne, to be brought to a place by
hym assynged, and there to be kept by his offycers.

Fabyan, p. 527.
The gods forbid (quoth he) one shaft of thine
Should be discharg'd gainst that discourteous knight,
His heart vnworthie is (shootresse diuine)
Of thine artillerie to feele the might.

Fairfax's Tasso, book xvii. They are persecutors even of Horace himself, as far as they are able, by their ignorant and vile imitations of him; by making an unjust use of his authority, and turning his artillery against his friends.

Dryden's Pref. to All for Love.

It is related by some historians, that Edward, besides the resources which he found in his own genius and presence of mind, employed also a new invention against the enemy, and placed in his front some pieces of artillery, the first that had yet been made use of in Europe.

Hume's Hist. of England, p. 432.

And if thou hast the mettle of a king,
Being wrong'd as we are by this peeuish toune;
Turne thou the mouth of thy artillerie,
As we will ours, against these sawcie walles.

Shakespeare's King John, fol. 6.
As when two black clouds
With heav'n's artillery fraught, come rattling on
Over the Caspian, then stand front to front
Hov'ring a space, till winds the signal blow
To joyn their dark encounter in mid air.

Milton's Par. Lost, book ii.

Now was Eretria by all forcible means assaulted, for not only the vessels of three joynt navies had brought thither all sorts of engins and artillerie devised for to shake and batter the walls of cities, but also the fields and country hard by, yeelded them plentie

of timber and other matter to make new.

Holland's Livy. ARTILLERY, is originally a French word, signifying archery, and was formely used to denote all the offensive apparatus of war, particularly those of the missile kind. At present we employ it only to the larger firearms, as cannon, mortars, howitzers, &c. Rockets are also now considered as forming a part of artillery.

Artillery likewise signifies the art or science which has for its object the management, arrangement, and application of the above arms to the purposes of of fence and defence, and hence that part of the army which is specifically charged with this service is called the artillery.

According to the latter extended signification of this term, it includes Gunnery, or the art of throwing balls, shells, &c. with accuracy and precision; Pyrotechny, or the composition of fireworks, as rockets,

fuzes, portfires, &c.; Fortification, or the construc- ARTIL tion of works for offence and defence. The manage- LERY. ment of pontoons, the construction of military bridges, the working of mines; and all the most important operations of a siege, or defence of a garrison, are considered generally to appertain more or less to the engineer and artillery service.

We propose, however, in this article, not to treat of artillery as a science, but simply to describe the several apparatus, appointments, &c. which according to our first definition constitute what is commonly understood as the artillery of an army; prefacing that description by an historical sketch of the progress and successive changes which have taken place in this important branch of the military art.

In the most ancient times, when war was made with quickness and impetuosity, the use of artillery was unknown; the club and the dart were at this time the only instruments of attack and defence; and it was probably sometime before the bow and arrow were thought of as offensive weapons.

As the destructive means of attack were by the latter invention made to operate at a distance, corresponding means of defence became necessary, and trunks of trees interlaced with branches and supported with earth, constituted the first fortification; which was afterwards improved by substituting a wall with a parapet, for shooting arrows at the assailants. Afterwards the walls were carried higher, and holes left in them of sufficient size only to enable the archers to discharge their arrows effectually upon an enemy.

To attack, therefore, with any chance of success, some powerful engine became necessary to batter down the walls; this gave rise to the battering ram, which was probably one of the first engines of ancient artillery. To what date we are to refer the invention of this powerful machine is uncertain. We are informed in the Second Book of Chronicles that Uzziah, who began his reign 809 years before the Christian era, "made in Jerusalem engines, invented by cunning men, to be upon the towers and upon the bulwarks to shoot arrows and great stones withal." It is therefore probable, that the ram was at least known in those days, although we have no distinct mention of it till the time of Pericles the Athenian, 409 years, B. C. To oppose this powerful engine of attack farther means of defence became necessary, and the invention of ballista and catapultæ resulted probably from this necessity. But these soon became instruments, not only of defence, but of attack; for in the siege of Motya, about 370 years before Christ. Dionysius, after having battered down the fortification with his rams, advanced to the walls towers rolled upon wheels, whence he galled the besieged with continual vollies of stones and darts, thrown from his catapultæ. Anc. Univ. Hist. vol. vi.

A number of other instances are mentioned soon after this time, in which machines of various descriptions were employed both for defence and attack, of which

ARTILLERY.

we may mention in particular the seige of Saguntum by Hannibal, 219 B. c., in which the Saguntines prevented his soldiers from using the battering ram, by a continual hurling of darts, stones, and other missiles. From this time, these warlike engines increased both in number and in magnitude, to an almost incredible extent; of which the reader may form some idea by the inventory that different historians have given us of those found in certain cities, which had been obliged to capitulate to the enemy; and by the enumeration of those which accompanied particular armies. Thus we are informed, that Titus employed in the siege of Jerusalem three hundred catapultæ of divers magnitudes, and forty ballista, of which the least projected stones of 75lb. weight. And when the consul Censorius marched against Carthage, and obliged the inhabitants to give up their arms, they surrendered to him two thousand machines proper for throwing darts and stones and afterwards, when Scipio made himself master of the same city, there were no less than one hundred and twenty catapultæ of the larger size, two hundred and eighty-one of the smaller; twenty-three of the larger balliste, fifty-two of a smaller kind, and an innumerable number of scorpions of different sizes, arms, and missile weapons. Two years previous to this, Marcellus had laid siege to Syracuse, a city proverbially fatal to the armies that attacked it. Archimedes was at that time resident in the city; and, at the earnest solicitation of Hiero, king of Sicily, exerted the powers of his mind in the invention of artillery, and other warlike instruments. Marcellus had brought with him an enormous engine mounted on eight gallies, called sambuca, which Archimedes destroyed by discharging at it single stones of enormous weight, while it was at a considerable distance from the walls: this was effected by ballista; but he also employed crows, grapples, and scorpions; by the former of which the Roman vessels were lifted out of the water by the prow, and plunged to the bottom of the sea.

It would be useless to record the numerous other sieges, which took place between this period and the invention of cannon, where these instruments were employed. We shall therefore now endeavour to present the reader with the description and figure of these several machines according to the best authorities; at the same time it must be acknowledged, that the account of many of them is so very obscure, that it may be questionable whether they are precisely such as those described by the ancient historians.

The ancient artillery may be divided into three classes of machines; viz. first, those intended for projecting bodies; secondly, those for approach and demolition; thirdly, a miscellaneous class, used for various offensive operations.

Of the first class, the most important are the ballistæ and catapultæ; which are, by some authors, confounded with each other; but, according to their etymology, ballistæ, from ẞaw, to shoot or throw, is an engine for propelling stones, called also Moôßoλos, TETpoßolos, Petraria, &c.; while catapultæ, in Greek, KаTаTÉλτηs, from #ελτηs, a spear or dart, was an instrument employed to dart forth spears or arrows.

The force of the ballista was prodigious. The stones east from them were of enormous weight, and of any form; and for the further annoyance of the besieged

LERY.

place, they would throw into it from the ballista dead ARTILbodies of men and horses, heads and detached limbs. Athenæus mentions one of these ballista that threw a stone of three talents, viz. about 360lbs. weight. Cæsar employed these machines not only to destroy men, but to batter down strong and high towers. We have already mentioned the machines employed by Titus against Jerusalem, some of which Josephus states, projected stones of a hundred weight, and Archimedes is said to have cast bodies of 1,200 lbs., by means of his ballista, against the Roman fleet, in his defence of Syracuse.

Description of the Ballista, A A A (fig. 1.) is a strong frame work, susceptible of easy separation, for the purpose of conveyance, and then of being rejoined in frame. The upper beams are pierced on the opposite sides of the frame with two orifices as at the points, B B. Two toothed wheels, y, have the form shewn at Fig. 2, in which may be seen a strong cross piece. A strong cord, well stretched, passes several times from the cross piece of one wheel to that of the opposite wheel, and form thus several intersecting twists; at the centre of one of which is inserted the handle or stem cc, of the capacious spoon S. The leaves of the pinion x, play into the teeth of the wheel y. And thus, by turning the pinion through the intervention of the handle, the wheel y is turned, and the cords fastened to its cross piece a, are made to twist more and more about each other. When by this process the twisted cords have received a sufficient tension, the wheels and pinions are retained in their places by the application of a pall or rachet. This done, the stem c c, which has waxed cord coiled closely about it to give it additional strength, is brought down to the horizontal position by means of the windlass w r, and retained there by another pall or detent. In this state of things the body, which it is intended to throw from the ballista, is placed in the cavity S. At a given word the detent is struck away with a mallet, and the stem c c, obeying the enormous elastic force which now acts upon it, remounts and discharges the projectile with great impetuosity. At the moment of the discharge, the stem cc strikes against the frame at F (whose position evidently affects the length of the range): where to soften down the shock a thick horse hair cushion is placed.

The machines called by the Romans tormentum, were only varieties of the ballista, and served to project stones and other ponderous masses: according to Vitruvius the cords employed in these machines were made sometimes of hair, at others of the bowels of animals prepared like our cat-gut. All were not twisted by the same process; but sometimes by means of a windlass, at others by toothed wheels. The ultimate effects, however, were the same in all cases.

Of the Catapulta. These, as we have before observed, were employed in throwing darts or arrows; which, it is said, were sometimes poisoned, and at others set on fire.

A Catapulta of the smaller kind is shown in fig. 2-a. It consists merely of an immense bow of elastic wicker work, placed on a suitable carriage, and having its upper part drawn down by the force of several men applied to a strong rope. Several arrows are lodged upon a suitable frame, and at different elevations. The tightened cord being set at liberty by drawing out a

ARTIL pin, the bent surface recovering itself by its natural LERY. elasticity, advances to its original vertical position, and thus drives before it all the arrows with considerable velocity. This kind of catapulta is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, as being employed at the siege of Cyprus.

Catapulta of the larger kind were much more powerful, and were used to shoot darts and arrows of great length and weight. One of these is represented in fig. 3. It is not unaptly assimilated to a broken bow, although there is this difference, that in the latter the elastic force resides in the bow itself, whereas, here, as in the ballista, the elastic force is in the twisted cords; between which the two arms are inserted, not vertically as in the stem of the ballista, but horizontally. At the extremity of the two arms a a, is attached a strong rope b. The twisted cords cc, receive their tension by means of the wheel work at dd; and are kept at the requisite twist by means of detents as in the ballista; the arms are also strengthened by ligatures of waxed cord as in the latter machine. When the engine is at rest, the two arms a a, rest against the cushions at m m, and as the twisting of the cords cc, proceeds by means of the toothed wheels d d, these arms press more and more against their respective cushions. Then drawing the rope b, by means of the grappling hook x, and cord, worked by the windlass y, a projecting pin detains the cord b, at an assigned point, where it is known to have acquired the requisite tension. The darts are then placed in the grooves rr; and the pin being struck from its place, the arms a a, yielding to the elastic impulse of the twisted cords, move rapidly till they strike the cushions mm; the cord b, as rapidly tightened strikes the darts, and sends them forth with astonishing velocity; which might however be modified to greater or less by different degrees of tension.

The impulsive energy of these machines far exceeds the ideas we should form of them from their description. It is said that Montfaucon possessed a small model of a catapulta, only five inches in length, which projected its dart to the distance of 400 feet; and Folard, the learned editor of Polybius, had a model only a foot in each dimension, which propelled its dart with such force as to cause it to enter and remain in hard freestone at the distance of 1300 feet; Cæsar also relates that at the seige of Marseilles the besieged propelled from the top of their walls, beams of 12 feet long, armed at one end by pointed iron heads, which pierced four ranks of stout hurdles and then stuck firmly into the earth.

Of the scorpion. This is another of the propelling machines of the ancients, and is probably of anterior date to those we have been describing, being far inferior to them in its action, although still a very powerful engine. We have represented one of the forms of the scorpion in fig. 4. by which it will be perceived, that the propelling power was produced by the descent of the weight placed at the shorter arm of the machine, which raising the longer arm, the stone was delivered from the sling attached to it with a very considerable force; but as we have stated above, by a very inferior one to that produced by the twisted cord in the ballista and catapulta. It is needless to add that the stone being discharged, the long arm was drawn down by manual strength, and the machine re

charged by another stone. This is by some authors ARTIL called a fundiballe.

The arcoballista is a smaller propelling apparatus, which might be worked by one man; it is little more than a fixed bow with a simple mechanical contrivance for bringing back the line, as shown in fig. 5.

The above are the principal machines which the ancients possessed for distant means of annoyance; it still remains for us to describe those employed on a near approach to an enemy's works for the demolition of the same, and the opposing engines of the besieged.

Machines of Approach and Demolition.

Of the Battering Ram. The ancients employed two different machines of this kind; the one suspended, and which was vibrated after the manner of a pendulum, and the other moveable on rollers. These were denominated the swinging and rolling ram; and when either of these was worked under a cover or shed to protect the assailants from the annoyance of the besieged, they were denominated tortoise rams, from the shed being assimilated to the tortoise shell.

The swinging ram, fig. 6, resembled, as well in its magnitude as in its form, the mast of a large vessel, suspended horizontally at its centre of gravity, by chains or cords from a moveable frame of carpentry. Ligatures of waxed cord surrounded the beam at short intervals, and cords at the extremity farthest from the head, served for the purpose of applying human force to supply the oscillatory motion. Other cords at intermediate distances were also sometimes thus employed. The frame of carpentry was often encased at its sides by a double cover of wicker work, between which horsehair and marine herbs were stuffed. The top was covered with sloping hurdles plastered with mortar, and in case of necessity, the whole was kept moist by vinegar, to prevent its being set on fire by the enemy. In this form it became what was denominated the tortoise ram. See fig. 8.

The rolling ram was much the same as the above in its general construction; except that instead of receiving a pendulous motion, it was a motion of simple alternation produced by the strength of men applied to cords passing over the pulleys PP. fig. 7. This construction seems to have been first employed at the siege of Byzantium.

These machines were often extremely ponderous, Appian declares, that at the siege of Carthage he saw two rams so colossal that one hundred men were employed in working each. And Vitruvius affirms that the beam was often from 100 to 120 feet in length, and Justus Lipsius describes some as 180 feet long, and 2 feet 4 inches in diameter, with an iron head weighing at least a ton and a half.

In contrasting the effects of the battring ram with those of the modern artillery, we must not merely judge of them by the mechanical measure of their respective momenta. Such a ram as one of those described by Lipsius, would weigh more than 45,000 lbs., and the momentum of this, supposing its velocity to be about two yards per second, would be nearly quadruple, the momentum of a 40 lb. ball, moving with a velocity of 1600 feet per second. But what would be the different operation of these bodies upon a wall. The ball would penetrate the opposing

LERY.

ARTIL- substance, and pursue the almost undisturbed tenor LERY. of its way; but this is not the case with the ram. Its efficacy in the work of demolition would depend upon the due apportioning its intervals of oscillation. At first it would produce no obvious effect upon the wall; but the judicious repetition of its blows, would in a short time give motion to the wall itself. First, there would be just perceptible tremors, then more extensive vibrations; these being evident, the men would adjust the oscillations of the ram to that of the wall, till, at length, a large portion of it, partaking of the vibratory impulse, would, by a well timed blow, fall to the earth at once. This recorded effect of the ram has nothing analogous in the results of modern machinery.

Moveable Towers, Tortoises, &c. The moveable towers employed by the ancients in their sieges, and which they called Helepoles, were often of an astonishing magnitude, Vegetius describes them as being formed of strong planks. To preserve them from risk of fire thrown from the walls of the besieged place, they were covered with raw hides, or with pieces of woven horse hair. Their height was proportional to the dimensions of their bases, which were sometimes 30 feet square, and their height 40 or 50 feet. Sometimes their height was still greater, that they might be above the walls, and even above the stone towers of the city. They were supported upon several small wheels, by means of which they might be moved from place to place, notwithstanding their enormous size and weight. It was generally reckoned that the besieged place was in eminent danger whenever the besiegers had succeeded in placing one of these near the walls. The helepole was supplied with ladders, by which to mount from stage to stage, and each stage presented its particular means of attack. In the lower one there was commonly a ram; and the middle stage, or a higher one, was furnished with a bridge, made of mutually intersecting levers, which could be easily projected out, and thereby form a communication between the tower and the wall. Sometimes baskets fixed to projecting levers, carried men who were let down upon the wall. On the upper stages were soldiers armed with halberts, and archers who continually played upon the besieged.

Vitruvius states, that the weight of the helepolis brought against Rhodes by Demetrius weighed 260,000 lbs., and that to man and manoeuvre it, cmployed 3400 soldiers. (See figs. 10, 11).

The Tortoise, as we have already stated, was a kind of moving sheet, used to defend the assailants in their advance upon the place, these were also of great magnitude. One of those employed by Cæsar, at the seige of Marseilles, was 60 feet long, and served to cover the space between the helepolis and the city wall. In some instances a long rank of these was placed end to end, and served as a complete protection to the soldiers. They were covered, as we have already said, with raw hides or with moistened horse hair, to protect them from the fire of the besieged. (See figs. 8, 9).

Miscellaneous Machines.

Of Crows (Corvi) and Cranes. As in the application of the engines last described, it was necessary for the besiegers to approach close under the walls of the

besieged city, it was natural, that the latter should ARTIL attempt a means of annoyance, or defence against LERY. their enemy, which might counteract their efforts. This probably gave rise to the machines we are about to describe, which were of different kinds, some being used in sieges, and others in engagements at sea. The description we have of these engines, and of the effects produced by them is scarcely credible. Plutarch informs us, that when Marcellus had advanced his galleys close under the walls of Syracuse, Archimedes directed against them enormous machines, which being projected forward, there were let down suddenly from them large beams, from which were suspended long vertical arms of rope, terminated with grappling hooks; which laying hold of the vessels, and rapidly elevating them by the operation of counter weights, upset and sunk them to the bottom of the sea; or, after raising them by their prows, and setting them as it were on their poops, plunged them endwise into the water. Others, it is said, he swung round towards the shore by the application of his cranes, and after whirling them in the air, dashed them to pieces on the rocks beneath. Although it is impossible not to suspect some degree of exaggeration in these statements, yet we cannot at the same time doubt, that very powerful means of this kind were employed in this celebrated siege; in which Archimedes, the prince of Grecian mathematicians, performed an important part, and where he at length fell beneath the sword of one of the soldiers of the conqueror.

A more simple engine of this description is shown in (fig. 12), it consisted of a long and strong perch, armed by a strong iron crow head, and suspended on a moveable carriage. It was employed principally for destroying the parapets of walls, for dismantling the sides of the sheds under which the rams were worked, and for other similar purposes.

The telleno, fig. 13, was a machine employed for raising a few soldiers higher than the top of the enemy's wall, to ascertain what was going on within them, and sometimes for taking possession of them, and thus facilitating the escalade. In the former instance, it was formed by a great pile driven into the ground, which served as a fulcrum, to a long lever, which was placed across it, and balanced. At one of its extremities was a light wooden, or wicker case, capable of holding a certain number of men, who when the opposite end was drawn down by cords, were raised so as to be enabled to look over the walls, or to mount upon them. Others were mounted on carriages, as shown in the figure.

Such was the artillery of the ancients, or their machines of attack and defence, which the invention of gunpowder has rendered useless and obsolete. In fact, few of the machines we have described are sufficiently illustrated by the early historians, to enable us to say with certainty that our representation is perfectly correct, and some are mentioned, of which only the names remain. What we have given are drawn from the most authentic sources, and for most of which we are indebted to Dr. Gregory, who has been at considerable pains in collecting them for his lecture on the ancient artillery, delivered at the Royal Military Academy, and who has very obligingly allowed us the perusal of his manuscript.

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