ACA

library, which is always open; a complete set of chirurDEMY. gical instruments; an apparatus for experiments in natural philosophy; a collection of specimens in natural history; a variety of anatomical and pathological preparations; preparations in wax, brought from Florence; and many other useful articles. In this institution, three prize medals, of the value of forty florins each, are to be annually bestowed on those students who return the best answer to questions proposed during the previous year. These prizes are in part owing to the liberality of Brendellius, the protochirurgus at Vienna, and are annually published.

Ecclesiastical.

Cosmographical.

Scientific Acad. Secret. Nat.

Acad. Lyn.

Acad. del Cimento.

ECCLESIASTICAL. An academy of this description was instituted at Bologna, in Italy, in 1687, for the purpose of examining into the doctrine, discipline, and history, of each age of the church.

COSMOGRAPHICAL. About the commencement of the eighteenth century, a Cosmographical academy was instituted at Venice, called the Argonauts, at the instigation of Vincent Coronelli, for the advancement of geography; the device of which is the terraqueous globe, with the motto plus ultra. The publication of correct maps, both celestial and terrestrial, together with geographical, historical, and astronomical descriptions, constitutes the principal design. Each member of the Academia Cosmographia, in order to defray the expence, subscribes a proportional sum, for which they are to receive one or more copies of each piece. For this purpose, three societies are settled; one under F. Moro, provincial of the Minorites in Hungary; another under the Abbot Laurence au Ruy Payenne au Marais; the third under F. Baldigiani, Jesuit professor of mathematics in the Roman college. All the globes, maps, and geographical writings, of Coronelli, have been published at the expence of the academy.

SCIENTIFIC. About the year 1560, the academy called Academia Secretorum Natura, was instituted at Naples, in the house of Baptista Porta; the design of which was to advance the knowledge of mathematical and physical science. The church of Rome, however, apprehensive that the diffusion of light would prove unfavourable to its ecclesiastical pretensions, or at least persuaded that it was altogether unnecessary, soon laid an effectual interdict upon an association which was becoming exceedingly prosperous.

It was succeeded by the Academia Lyncei, established at Rome, by Prince Frederic Cesi, about the close of the same century, for the similar purpose of promoting natural philosophy. This academy became illustrious in consequence of several of its members, who were discoverers in science; among whom may be noticed, in particular, the celebrated Galileo. Other institutions of a similar description arose almost contemporaneously, but none equalled the Academia Lyncei; and though they were in some degree useful, it was less by the induction of facts through the investigations of experiment, than by the less valuable and too often ill-founded plausibilities of speculation.

The Academy del Cimento, arose at the commencement of the 17th century, under the protection of Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de Medicis. Among its chief members were Paul de Buono, who, in 1657, invented an instrument to show the incompressibility of water, consisting of a globular shell of gold; Alphonso Borelli, who wrote De Motu Animalium; Vincent Vivani, Francis Redi, and Count Laurence Magalotti;

the latter of whom published a curious work in 1667, ACA. under the title of Saggi di Naturali Esperienze, which DEMY. appeared in an English translation by Mr. Waller, in 1684.

The Academy degl' Inquieti at Bologna, incorporated Acad. degl' afterwards into that of Della Tracia, produced some Inquieti. admirable discourses, which were published by Geminiano Montenari, in 1667, under the title of Pensieri Fisico-Matematici. This academy met in the house of Eustachio Manfredi, in 1690, who is by some represented as the founder. He and his associates, assumed the planetary system as their armorial badge, surrounded by a serpent with the tail in its mouth; the motto was mens agitat, whence they derived the name of Inquieti. In 1704, the institution was new modelled by J. B. Morgagni, with the assistance of E. Manfredi and Stancarius, whose efforts were principally directed to the abolition of the scholastic methods of speculating, and the substitution of another and more successful mode of philosophising. In 1714, it was united with the Bononian institute, which has been richly endowed by the popes, and was under senatorial protection. The director now acquired the title of president, and the school itself that of Academy of the Institute. From the patronage of Clement XI. it was afterwards generally termed Academia Clementina. It is a singular feature of this institution, that several ladies were not only admitted as members, but elevated to the dignity of professorships, among whom were Anna Manzolini, professor of anatomy; and Laura Bassi, celebrated for her knowledge of the abstruse sciences, of whom an account is given in the sixth volume of the Commentarii Bononienses. The building of the academy comprises forty apartments, besides halls underneath: the library consists of 120,000 volumes, independently of an apartment filled with valuable manuscripts. The cabinet of natural history is remarkably fine.

Rossun.

In 1540, an Academy called La Societa Scientifica Acad. deg!' Rossunense degl' Incuriosi, was established at Rossano, in the kingdom of Naples. Originally it was an academy of belles lettres, but was made an academy of sciences in 1695, at the instance of the abbot Don Giacinto Gimma; who, as president, under the title of promoter-general, introduced a new set of regulations, by which he divided the members into grammarians, rhetoricians, poets, historians, philosophers, physicians, mathematicians, lawyers, and divines, with a class apart for cardinals and persons of quality. The members are not allowed to assume the title of academists, without a written permission from their president, which is not granted till the proposed publication has been sanctioned by the censors of the academy. The permission is considered as the greatest honour the academy can confer, as the institution, by their adopting it, becomes responsible for its contents. To this law the president is himself subject. No academist is permitted to publish against the writings of another without leave from the society.

Italy has always been the nursery of academical institutions, which have diffused a refinement over the general taste of that country, for which it has been highly celebrated. A mere catalogue of these institutions, which Jarckius reckons at the number of 550, of which he gives the history of 25 in the city of Milan, would occupy many pages. Many have become extinct from being unsupported by the princes; others have acquired lasting fame and stability-among which may

ACADEMY.

French

be enumerated the academy of Filarmonici at Verona, supported by the Marquis Scipio Maffei, to whose memory a marble statue is erected over the entrance of the palace; the academy of Ricovaltri at Padua; the academy of the Muti de Reggio, at Modena. In the two latter, Sig. Vallisnieri distinguished himself by learned and ingenious dissertation.

F. Mersenne is said to have given the first idea of a Academies. philosophical academy in France; about the beginning of the 17th century, by the conferences of naturalists and mathematicians, held occasionally at his lodgings; at which Gassendi, Des Cartes, Hobbes, Roberval, Pascal, Bondel, and others, assisted. Mersenne proposed problems for examination, or experiments for trial. These assemblies were soon succeeded by others more public, under the direction of M. Montmort, and M. Thevelot the traveller. The example set by the French stimulated their neighbours the English, who determined on the establishment of a philosophical academy in Oxford, at the close of Oliver Cromwell's administration; which, after the Restoration, was erected into a Royal Society. The zeal of England, in its turn, animated the French; and Louis XIV. in 1666, assisted by the counsels of his minister, M. Colbert, founded an academy of sciences at Paris, with a sufficient revenue to defray the charge of experiments, and salaries to the members.

Royal Aca demy of Sciences.

Happy had it been for the interests of humanity as well as of science, had this principle of rivalship never exceeded the legitimate boundary of scientific and philosophical investigation; and if each had been always emulous of bearing into the remotest wilds of ignorance, the torch of science, instead of unsheathing and striking into the heart of civilized society the sword of war!

The Royal Academy of Sciences (for such was the name it assumed), was founded, as we have said, in 1666, by Louis XIV. who having obtained some leisure by the peace of the Pyrenees, directed M. Colbert to form a society of men of known ability and science, to associate under the royal protection, and communicate their respective discoveries. Accordingly, the minister having conferred with persons most conversant in natural philosophy and mathematics, history and the belles lettres, formed them into the proposed society. The mathematicians and philosophers met on Tuesdays and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king's library, which contained the requisite books; the learned in history assembled on Mondays and Thursdays, in the hall where the historical works were collected; and the class of belles lettres held their meetings on Wednesdays and Fridays. On the first Thursday of every month, all the different classes met together, and made a report of their proceedings. The classes of history, and belles lettres, were soon disjoined from the rest, and united to the French Academy, whose particular object was the improvement of the language; so that the Royal Academy contained only two classes, viz. that of natural philosophy and mathematics.

In 1699, at the suggestion of the president, Abbé Bignon, the king, by a proclamation dated the 26th of January, appointed a new set of regulations, dividing its members into four kinds; viz. honorary, pensionary, associates, and eléves.. The first class

contained ten persons, and each of the rest twenty. The honorary academists were to be all inhabitants of France; the pensionaries all to reside at Paris; eight of the associates allowed to be foreigners; and the eléves all to live at Paris. The officers to be, a president named by the king, out of the class of honorary academists; and a secretary and treasurer, to be perpetual. Of the pensionaries, or those who received salaries from the king; three to be geometricians, three astronomers, three mechanics, three anatomists, three chemists, three botanists, and the remaining two to be secretary and treasurer. Of the twelve associates, two to apply themselves to geometry, two to botany, and two to chemistry. The eléves, or pupils, one of whom was attached to each of the pensionaries, were to apply themselves to the same kind of science with the pensionaries with whom they were connected, and not to speak, except when called by the president. No regular, or religious, to be admitted, excepting into the class of honorary academists; nor any person to be admitted, either for associate or pensionary, unless known by some considerable printed work, some machine, or other discovery. The assemblies were generally held on Wednesdays and Saturdays. To incite to diligence and investigation, the king en gaged, in addition to the ordinary pensions, to giveextraordinary bounties for the most meritorious perform-ances; and to defray all the expence of the necessary experiments. The motto of the institution was, Invenit et perfecit.

During his regency, the duke of Orleans, in 1716,. augmented the number of honoraries, and of associates, capable of being foreigners, to twelve; admitted regulars among such associates; and suppressed the class of eléves, as calculated to create too great an inequality among the academists, and productive of misunderstandings and animosities. He originated, at the same time, two other classes; one consisting of twelve adjuncts, who, as well as the associates, were allowed a deliberative voice in matters relative to science; and the other six free associates, who were not attached to any particular science, nor obliged to pursue any particular work. A vice president was also hereafter to be chosen annually by the king, out of the honorary members; and a director and sub-director out of the pensionaries. Other changes were introduced in the year 1785, when the king added classes of natural history, agriculture, mineralogy, and physics; and incorporated the associates and adjuncts, limiting the members of each class to six; three pensionaries, and three associates; besides a perpetual secretary and treasurer, twelve free associates, and eight associate foreigners. By this arrangement the academy consisted of eight classes; geometry, astronomy, mechanics,, physics, anatomy, chemistry and metallurgy, botany and agriculture, natural history, and mineralogy.

this

This academy has been extremely useful, by repeatedly sending out persons to make scientific observations; and particularly in computing the me-ridian. Since its re-establishment in 1699, academy has published every year, with a few recent exceptions, a volume of the memoirs which have been. presented during the course of that year. To each volume is prefixed the history of the academy, or an extract of the memoirs, together with the eulogiums.

ACADEMY.

National Institute.

RoyalAcad. at Berlin.

on such academists as have died within the year, and other academical transactions. M. Rouille de Meslay, counsellor to the parliament of Paris, founded two prizes, one of 2500, and the other 2000 livres, which were alternately distributed by the parliament every year the subject for the first, related to physical astronomy, the latter to navigation and commerce. The history of this academy, to the year 1697, was written by Du Hamel, and continued afterwards by Fontenelle under the following titles: Du Hamel Historia Regiæ Academiæ Scientiarum. Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, avec les Memoirs de Mathematique et de Physique, tirez des Registres de l'Academie. Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, depuis son Etablissement en 1666, jusqu'en 1699, en 13 tomes, 4to. A new history has been written to the period when Fontenelle commences, with a series of works published in the name of the academy.

In 1793, the academy was abolished by a decree of the convention, as being a royal establishment, and a new one formed, bearing the name of the National Institute. The memoirs, up to this period, are contained in 139 volumes in quarto.

Academies of considerable importance are also established in most of the principal cities of France ;-as the academy at Caen, formed by letters patent in 1705: the Academie des jeux Floraux, at Toulouse, consisting of forty members, and one of the most ancient in the kingdom: the Royal Academy of Sciences and Polite Literature, at Toulouse, whose first volume of transactions appeared in 1782. The academy at Rouen, established in 1736; at Bourdeaux, in 1703; at Soissons, in 1674; at Marseilles, in 1726; at Lyons, in 1700; at Montauban, in 1744; at Amiens, in 1750; at Dijon, in 1740; where, in a handsome saloon, are placed the busts of eminent men, produced by the city, as Bossuet, Fevret, De Brosses, Crebillon, Pyron, and Buffon; &c. &c.

The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, originated in Frederic II. king of Prussia; who, in 1700, modelled it after that of England; with the addition of the belles lettres. Alterations were afterwards introduced in 1710, particularly with regard to the president, who was made one of the counsellors of state, and nominated by the king. The members were divided into four classes the first comprehending the pursuit of physics, medicine, and chemistry; the second, mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics; the third, the German history and language; the fourth, oriental learning, with a view to the propagation of the gospel among infidels. Each class was to elect a director, to be chosen for life. The members of any of the classes to have free admission into the assemblies of all the others. The illustrious Leibnitz, the chief promoter of the institution, was the first director. During some years the royal favor did not shine upon them with any very ardent or benignant brightness; but at last, in 1743, Frederic III. king of Prussia, by inviting to Berlin the most distinguished foreign literati, by inciting his subjects to the cultivation of the sciences, by distributing among them ample rewards, by conferring the honour of presidency upon M. Maupertius, and taking upon himself the care of regulating the academy, while he assumed the title of its protector, inspired it with vigour, and raised it to eminence.

Two public assemblies are held annually; one in January, on the late king's birth day; and the other in May, on the day of his accession to the throne. At the latter, a gold medal, of fifty ducats value, is given as a prize the subjects are successively natural phi-· losophy, mathematics, metaphysics, and erudition. Since this period, the transactions of the academy have been published in a number of volumes, under the title of Memoires de l'Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres à Berlin. A full account may be found in a work, entitled Histoire de l'Aaemie Royale des Sciences, et Belles Lettres à Berlin.

Several new regulations were introduced by the king Imp. Acad. in 1798; as the appointment of a directory, consisting Petersburg, of four to manage the funds, with a president, and two members, to be chosen from among men of business. The academy had the power of nomination, while the king retained the right of confirming or rejecting the choice. The public library at Berlin, with the cabinet of curiosities, was united to the academy. These regulations were intended to liberalize the views of the academy, and to promote the general improvement of the arts amongst the people.

The Imperial Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, was projected by Peter the Great: who, during his travels in 1717, having noticed the advantages resulting from the establishment of literary institutions, formed the design of forming an academy of sciences in his own capital. Wolf and Leibnitz were consulted on this occasion; the plan of the society arranged, and several learned foreigners were invited to become members: but the death of the czar prevented its immediate execution. His successor, Catharine I., who fully entered into the magnificent views of Peter, completed his arrangement in the month of December 1725, when the first meeting was held in the presence of the duke of Holstein, and many distinguished personages. On the first of August following, Catharine herself attended the meeting, when Bulfinger, the German naturalist, delivered an oration on the advantages derived from the loadstone and the needle for the discovery of the longitude.

It was

The empress appropriated a fund of 4982 1. per annum, to the support of the academy; and fifteen members, eminent for learning and talents, were admitted and pensioned, under the title of Professors in the different branches of literature and science. Of these the most distinguished were Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli, the two De Lisles, Bulfinger, and Wolf. Peter II. withheld his patronage from the academy, and even stopped the salaries of the members. of course neglected by the court, and languished for want of patronage; but it revived under the empress Anne, being for some time directed by Baron Korf; but upon his death, an ignorant person being appointed president, many of the most able members quitted the kingdom. A second revival took place upon the accession of Elizabeth: the original plan was enlarged and improved; some of the most learned foreigners were induced to return to Petersburgh; and two natives, of genius and abilities, who had prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, Lomonosoff and Rumovsky, were enrolled among its members. These auspicious circumstances were regarded with the highest satisfaction by literary men, who anticipated

ACA- the diffusion of light over the wide spreading domains DEMY of a barbarous empire. In 1758, an academy of arts was added, but in 1764 separated again by Catherine II. This empress took the academy under her immediate protection: corrected many of its abuses, and infused new vigour into every department. At her recommendation, men of eminence visited the various provinces of her dominions, for the purpose of obtaining information; and as the funds of the academy were insufficient to defray the expence necessarily incurred by these expeditions, she contributed 20007.; to be renewed whenever it might be requisite. The annual income was now increased to 10,659 7.

These literary travellers were ordered to pursue their inquiries concerning the different sorts of earths and waters; the best methods of cultivating the barren and desert spots; the local disorders incident to men and animals, and the best means of affording them relief; the breeding of cattle, particularly of sheep; the rearing of bees and silk worms; the places proper for fishing and hunting; the different minerals; the various plants, with a view of forming a Flora Russica, or collection of indigenous plants; the arts and trades. They were also instructed to rectify the longitude and latitude of the principal towns; to make astronomical, geographical, and meteorological observations; to trace the course of rivers; to take the most exact charts; and accurately to remark the manners and customs of the different nations, their dress, language, antiquities, traditions, history, religion; with whatever other information might conduce to the illustration of the real state of the Russian empire. These expeditions, undertaken by Pallas, Gmelin, Stolberg, Guldenstaedt, and other men of eminence, have produced, as might have been expected, a number of excellent publications on the internal state of the country, and have rendered the academy truly illustrious. The academy is composed of fifteen professors, besides the president and director. Each professor has a house, and an annual stipend from 2007. to 600 . There are four adjuncts, who are pensioned, attend the sittings of the society, and succeed to the first vacancies. The meetings are held twice a week, and public assemblies thrice in a year.

The building and apparatus belonging to this academy are extraordinary. It has a fine library, consisting of 36,000 curious books and manuscripts; and an extensive museum, in which the various branches of natural history, are distributed in different apartments it is rich in native productions, owing to the variety of specimens collected by the learned professors before mentioned, during their expeditions through the empire. The chamber of rarities and the cabinet of coins, contain articles of extreme rarity and value. The society has this modest motto, Paulatim.

The transactions of this society were first published in 1728, and entitled, Commentarii Academic Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanæ, ad ann. 1726, with a dedication to Peter II. The publication was continued under this form until the year 1747, when its transactions were called Novi Commentarii Academiæ, &c. In 1777 the academy again changed the title into Acta Academic Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitane, and made some alteration in the arrangement and plan of the work. The papers, which had been hitherto published in the

Latin tongue, are now written either in that language ACAor French; and a preface is added, styled Partie DEMY. Historique, which contains an account of its proceedings, meetings, admission of new members, and other remarkable occurrences. Of the commentaries, fourteen volumes were published; the first of the new commentaries made its appearance in 1750, and the twentieth in 1776. Under the new title of Acta Academic, many volumes have been given to the public, and two are printed every year.

The academy was, for several years, torn by dissensions, owing to the misconduct of some of the directors: but it was new modelled by an edict of the empress; and its suspended publications resumed in a new series called Nova Acta, &c.

The Academy of Sciences at Bologna, called the Bologna. Institute of Bologna, was founded by Count Marsigli, in 1712, for the cultivating of physics, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, and natural history. Its history is written by M. de Limiers, from memoirs furnished by the founder himself. The academy founded by Clement XI. a short time previously, was incorporated with this; and the city, for its encouragement, purchased, and appropriated to its use, the palazzo Celesi. It has the following inscription at the entrance: Bononiense Scientiarum et Artium Institutum, ad publicum totius orbis usum.

The Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or Swedish Royal Swedish Academy, originated in six persons of Royal Academy. distinguished learning, among whom was the celebrated Linnæus; who first met on the 2d of June 1739; and formed a private society. In the latter end of the same year their first publication made its appearance. This society soon attracted public notice; and on the 31st of March 1741, was incorporated by the king, under the name of the Royal Swedish Academy. It receives, however, no pension from the crown, and is directed by its own members. Although its fund is large, owing to various legacies and other donations, a professor of experimental philosophy, and two secretaries, are the only persons who receive any salaries. Each of the members resident at Stockholm becomes president by rotation, and continues in office three months. There are two species of members, native and foreign: the election of the former is held in April, and of the latter in July: no money is paid at the time of admission. The dissertations read at each meeting, are collected and published four times in the year; they are written in the Swedish language, and printed annually in an octavo volume. The first forty volumes, which were finished in 1779, are called the Old Transactions; in the following year, the title was changed into that of New Transactions. The papers relating to agriculture, are published separately, under the title of Economica Acta. Annual premiums, in money and gold medals, principally for the encouragement of agriculture and inland trade, are also distributed by the academy. The fund for these prizes is supplied from private donations.

In 1799, the academy was divided into seven classes, viz. 1. General and Rural economy, containing fifteen members. 2. Commerce and the Mechanical Arts, containing fifteen members. 3. Exterior Physics and Natural History, containing fifteen members. 4. Interior Physics and Natural Philosophy, containing fifteen members. 5. Mathematics, containing eighteen

ACADEMY.

Royal Aca

members. 6. Medicine, containing fifteen members. 7. Belles Lettres, History, Languages, containing twelve members. In 1800 the funds amounted to 4007. derived from the exclusive sale of Almanacs.

The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen, demy at Co- owes its institution, like the Swedish academy, to the penhagen. zeal of six literati, whom Christian VI. in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of medals; and who, meeting occasionally, enlarged their plan by degrees, and consolidated it at length into a regular institution. One of the six was Pontoppidan, the author of the Natural History of Norway. The count of Holstein was the first president. Christian VI., in 1743, at the instigation of the count, took the academy under his protection, endowed it with a fund, and ordered the members to join to their former pursuits, natural history, physics, and mathematics. This inspirited the members with fresh zeal; and the academy has published fifteen volumes in the Danish language, some of which have been translated into Latin.

American

The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, although Academy. it had been in contemplation previous to the commencement of the American war, was not established till the beginning of the year 1780; when the council and house of representatives in the province of Massachusets Bay, having applied to the legislature, obtained its sanction to the measure, with ample privileges. Its design was, avowedly, to promote the knowledge of the antiquities and natural history of the country; to determine the uses to which its various natural productions might be applied; to encourage medicinal discoveries, mathematical disquisitions, philosophical inquiries and experiments, astronomical, meteorological, and geographical observations, and improvements in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce; and to cultivate every art and science which might tend to advance the interest, honour, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The members of this academy are never to be more than 200, nor less than 40. The first volume of the Transactions was published at Boston in 1785. Royal Irish The Royal Irish Academy arose, about the year 1782, Academy. out of a society established at Dublin, consisting of a number of gentlemen, most of whom belonged to the university; and held weekly meetings for the purpose of reading essays on various subjects in rotation. Solicitous of promoting the interests of literature and the honour of their country, these gentlemen afterwards formed a more extensive plan, and admitting only such names as might add dignity to their new institution, became the founders of the Royal Irish Academy, which professes to unite the advancement of the arts and sciences with polite literature, and the knowledge of antiquities. The papers relating to polite literature have been more numerous than those of any other academy, not entirely of a literary nature. The first volume of their transactions for 1787, appeared in 1788, and volumes have been since published in regular succession.

It should here be stated, that a society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society in London, so early as the year 1683; but the state of the country being unfavourable to the cultivation of philosophy and literature, it declined. About the beginning of the present century, the plan was resumed, and the earl of Pembroke, then lord lieutenant,

was president of a philosophical society established in ACADublin college. In the year 1740, a Physico-historical DEMY. Society was instituted; of which two volumes of Minutes are extant: but this society soon perished.

ACADEMIES, OR SCHOOLS OF ARTS. Under this denomination must be included the academy at Petersburg, established by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count Shuvalof, and annexed to the Academy of Sciences: the fund was 40007. per annum, and the foundation for forty scholars. Her successor formed it into a separate institution, enlarged the annual revenue to 12,000l. and augmented the number of scholars to 300: she also constructed, for the use and accommodation of the members, a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they have attained that of eighteen they are instructed in reading, writing, arithmetic, the French and German languages, and drawing; and are supported at the expence of the crown. At the age of fourteen, they are at liberty to choose any of the following arts, divided into four classes: 1. Painting in all its branches, of history, portraits, battles, and landscapes; architecture; mosaic; enamelling, &c. 2. Engraving on copperplates, seal-cutting, &c. 3. Carving on wood, ivory, and amber. 4. Watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste and other compositions, gilding, and varnishing. Prizes are annually distributed to those who excel in any particular art; and from those who have obtained four prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the charge of the empress. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling expences; and when they are settled in any town, they receive an annual salary of 607. which is continued during four years. There is a small assortment of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those who have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures in the empress's collection. For the purpose of design, there are models in plaster of the best antique statues in Italy, all done at Rome, of the same size with the originals, which the artists of the academy were employed to cast in bronze.

don.

The Royal Academy of Arts in London, was instituted Royal Aca in 1768, for the encouragement of designing, painting, demy of sculpture, &c. &c. The king is patron, and the aca- Arts, Londemy is under the direction of forty artists of the first rank in their several professions, who paint from living models of different characters, Nine of the ablest academicians are annually elected out of the forty, to attend by rotation, to set the figures, to examine the performance of the students, and to give the necessary instructions. There are separate professors of painting, of architecture, of anatomy, and of perspective, who annually read public lectures on the subject of their respective departments; besides a president, a council, and other officers. The academy is open to all students desirous of cultivating the studies to which it is devoted. There is an annual exhibition of painting, sculptures, and designs, which have often great merit.

and Sculp

ture, Paris

The Academy of Painting and Sculpture at Paris. Academy of This institution commenced at a very distant period. Painting In the 14th century, we find the Academy of St. Luke, at Paris, which in 1430, received many privileges from Charles VII.; these were confirmed by Henry III. in 1584; after which it became united to the society