ails.

IE- clouds collected upon these mountains, uniting with A. those which come from the north, occasion very heavy rains, accompanied with thunder, in all the provinces phi beyond the Andes, particularly in those of Tucuman and Cujo, while, at the same time, the atmosphere of Chili is constantly clear, and its inhabitants enjoy their finest season. The contrary takes place in winter, which is the fine season in these provinces, and the rainy in Chili. The south wind never continues blowing during the whole day with the same force; as the sun approaches the meridian, it falls very considerably, and rises again in the afternoon. At noon, when this wind is scarcely perceptible, a fresh breeze is felt from the sea, which continues about two or three hours; the husbandmen give it the name of the twelve o'clock breeze, or the countryman's watch, as it serves to regulate them in determining that hour. This sea-breeze returns regularly at midnight, and is supposed to be produced by the tide; it is stronger in autumn, and sometimes accompanied with hail. The east winds rarely prevail in Chili, their course being obstructed by the Andes. Hurricanes, so common in the Antilles, are unknown here; there exists, indeed, a solitary example of ahurricane, which, in 1633, did much injury to the fortress of Caremalpo, in the south part of Chili. The mild temperature which Chili almost always enjoys must depend entirely upon the succession of these winds, as a situation so near the tropic would naturally expose it to a more viclent degree of heat. In addition to these, the tide, the abundant dews, and certain winds from the Andes, which are distinct from the east winds, cool the air so much in summer, that in the shade no one is ever incommoded with perspiration. The dress of the inhabitants of the sea-coast is the same in the winter as in the summer; and in the interior, where the heat is more perceptible than elsewhere, Reaumur's thermometer scarcely ever exceeds 250. The nights, throughout the country, are generally of a very agreeable temperature. Notwithstanding the moderate heat of Chili, all the fruits of warm countries, and even those of the tropics, arrive to great perfection there, which renders it probable that the warmth of the soil far exceeds that of the atmosphere. The countries bordering on the E. of Chili do not enjoy these refreshing winds; the air there is suffocating, and as oppressive as in Africa under the same latitude.

Meteors are very frequent in Chili, especially those called shooting stars, which are to be seen there almost the whole year; also balls of fire, that usually rise from the Andes, and fall into the sea. The aurora australis, on the contrary, is very uncommon; that which was observed in 1640 was one of the largest; it was visible, from the accounts that have been left us, from the month of February until April. During the last century they have appeared at four different times. This phenomenon is more frequently visible in the Archipelago of Chiloe, from the greater elevation of the pole in that part of the country.

The greatest volcanic eruption ever known in Chili was that of Peteroa, which happened on the 3d of December, 1750, when that volcano formed itself a new crater, and a neighbouring mountain was rent asunder for many miles in extent; the eruption was accompanied by a dreadful explosion, which was heard throughout the whole country; fortunately it was not

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succeeded by any very violent shocks of an earthquake. S. AMEThe quantity of lava and ashes was so great that it filled RICA. the neighbouring vallies, and occasioned a rise of the waters of the Tingeraca, which continued for Geographidays. At the same time the course of the Lontue, a very considerable river, was impeded for ten days, by a part of the mountain which fell and filled its bed; the water at length forced itself a passage, overflowed all the neighbouring plains, and formed a lake which still remains. In the whole of the country not included in the Andes, there are but two volcanoes; the first, situate at the mouth of the river Rapel, is small, and discharges only a little smoke from time to time; the second is the great volcano of Villarica, in the country of Arauco. This volcano may be seen at the distance of 150 miles; and although it appears to be insulated, it is said to be connected by its base with the Andes. The summit of the mountain is covered with snow, and is in a constant state of eruption; it is 14 miles in circumference at its base, which is principally covered with pleasant forests: a great number of rivers derive their sources from it, and its perpetual verdure furnishes a proof that its eruptions have never been very violent. The inhabitants usually calculate three or four earthquakes at Chili annually, but they are very slight, and little attention is paid to them. The great earthquakes happen but rarely, and of these not more than five have occurred in a period of 244 years, from the arrival of the Spaniards to the present period, 1818. From a course of accurate observations, it has been ascertained that earthquakes never occur unexpectedly in this country, but are always announced by a hollow sound proceeding from a vibration of the air; and as the shocks do not succeed each other rapidly, the inhabitants have sufficient time to provide for their safety. They have, however, in order to secure themselves at all events, built their cities in a very judicious manner; the streets are left so broad that the inhabitants would be safe in the middle of them, should even the houses fall upon both sides. In addition to this, all the houses have spacious courts and gardens, which would serve as places of refuge; those who are wealthy have usually in their gardens several neat wooden barracks, where they pass the night whenever they are threatened with an earthquake. Under these circumstances, the Chilians live without apprehension, especially as the earthquakes have never been hitherto attended with any considerable sinking of the earth, or falling of buildings; this is probably owing to subterraneous passages communicating with the volcanoes of the Andes, which are so many vent-holes for the inflamed substances, and serve to counteract their effects. Were

it not for the number of these volcanoes, Chili would, in all probability, be rendered uninhabitable.

What has been said of the climate of Chili can in no great measure apply to that of the eastern parts of the continent, namely, of Buenos Ayres and Monte Video; for here the weather is generally more humid, and, in the winter months (June, July, and August), it is at times boisterous, and the air keen and piercing. In summer, also, the serenity of the atmosphere is frequently interrupted by tremendous thunder-storms, preceded by dreadful lightning, which frequently da mages the shipping, and followed by heavy rain, which sometimes destroys the harvest. The heat is trouble

S. AME RICA.

Geographical details. Mines.

some, and is rendered more so to strangers by the swarms of mosquitoes, which it engenders in such numbers that they infest every apartment.

MINES. By far the greater part of the precious metals used in the world are brought from America, and, with the exception of those from the mines of Mexico, almost all from the southern continent. It is impossible to give any adequate description of the treasures of these mines: many of them are inexhaustible: on the other hand, many hundreds have ceased to be worked on account of the want of quicksilver, and from their being filled with water. The former objection is, in a great measure, owing to the government monopolies, and the latter is likely to be overcome by the enterprizing spirit of European capitalists, who, in one or two instances, have already sent over steamengines of moderate power, which have effectually drained the pits, and afforded a lucrative return to the projectors. The Spanish government has at all times, since the discovery of this country, derived its principal resources from these metals, and to secure itself in the undivided enjoyment of them, it has passed the most rigid laws, and prevented, as far as possible, all intercourse of the nations with foreign powers. The annual produce of the mines of New Granada, as calculated from the amount of the royal duties, and therefore considerably under the truth, amounts to 18,000 Spanish marks of pure gold, and very few of silver; the value in dollars is 2,624,760, the gold being estimated at 145 dollars, and the silver at 9 dollars the Spanish mark. Besides this we must add for contraband 1,735,240 dollars, and the total produce will then be 4,360,000.

In the northern parts of Peru, are the famous mines of Potosi, several of them of gold, but those of silver are found all over the country. The mines of Potosi are chiefly of silver, and never did nature afford to the avidity of man, in any country on the globe, such endless sources of wealth. These mines were accidentally discovered in the year 1545, in this manner: An Indian, named Hualpa, one day following some deer, which made directly up the hill of Potosi, came to a steep, craggy part of the hill,, and the better to enable him to climb up, laid hold of a shrub, which came up by the roots, and laid open a mass of silver ore. He for some time kept it a secret, but afterwards revealed it to his friend Guanca, who, because he would not discover to him the method of refining it, acquainted the Spaniard his master, named Valaroel, with the discovery. Valaroel registered the mine in 1545; and from that time till 1638, these mines of Potosi had yielded 95,619,000 pieces of eight, which is about 4,255,000 pieces a year.

But the annual sum derived from these mines, according to the latest accounts, and as calculated from the produce of the royal duties, and therefore considerably under the truth, amounts to 3,400 Spanish marks of pure gold, and 513,000 ditto of pure silver. The value in dollars of both is 5,317,988; the gold being estimated at 145 8 dollars, and the silver at 9 dollars the Spanish mark. Besides this, we must add for contraband 922,012 dollars; and the total produce will then be 6,240,000. The following will show what has been the increasing amount of the produce of these mines of late years.

ΤΟ

100

Coinage of Potosi.

GOLD. Value in Dollars. Reals.

Dollars. Reals.

3,960,010 7 cat de

Annual average from 1780 to 1790, 257,247 1 Coinage of 1791, 257,526 0 4,365,175 0 Coinage of 1801, - 481,278 0 7,700,448 0 The first person who examined this mine was Thomas Valaroel, in the year of its discovery. The mountain is three miles in circumference, and 6,000 Castillian yards high above the level of the sea, as it was measured by Don Luis Godin, of the academy of the sciences of Paris. It is of a sharp conical figure, and resembles a great pavilion. In the interior it is nearly hollow, from the excavations which have been made for so many years, and on the exterior it appears like an ant-hill, from the multitude of mouths by which it is entered.

The silver-mines of Esquilache, in Peru, are so rich, that the bishop's yearly dues from the labourers amounted to 14,000 dollars; and one of the thirty-six which lay close together in that neighbourhood, was not long since sold for no less a consideration than a rent of 1,040 dollars a day. These mines are nevertheless but half worked for want of mechanical power, though great quantities of silver are, in fact, extracted from them. Alcedo observes, that if these mines were to be emptied of their water, they would, without doubt, yield twenty times as much ore as is usually produced from them. In Chili, there are mines of silver, copper, lead, sulphur, white lime and salt, but the most abundant of all are those of copper; large quantities of this metal having been sent to Spain for founding artillery, and, indeed, from the same source has been made all the artillery in this kingdom. This metal is found of two sorts, one which is called campanel, and is only fit for founding, and the other, which has a mixture of gold, and is called de labrar, or working metal, and which is known only in this province.

In the province of Santiago are some mines that can only be worked in the summer months, namely, December, January, February, and March; but in the winter time the rains and snow, and severity of the weather, force the labourers to desist.

Twenty leagues from the capital is the great mine of Kempú; some of the metals of which are founded, and some otherwise prepared; but the working of this mine is not well established, notwithstanding it has sixteen veins. Further towards the S. is another mine, named Maipo, the metals of which are lowered down by engines from a very lofty mountain, discovered more than 100 years ago, and called San Simon; and here also are the mines of De San Pedro Nolasco, which render a considerable portion of massy silver. On the N. part, by the mountains of the curacy of Colina, are found thirty-four gold-mines, which are actually worked, independently of 200 others, which are also worked. Besides these mines, there are five lavaderos, or washingplaces, in the mountain of Guindo, and some other veins in the old asiento of Tiltil. The top of Calen is covered with lavaderos of the richest gold.

The total amount furnished by the mines of Spanish America, annually, in gold and silver, may be reckoned as follows: viz. by

It was not till after the expulsion of the Dutch, that the Portuguese began to be aware of the riches they possessed in their mines. The minister of Portugal well knew the utility that would be derived to his country by the territories of this kingdom being well allotted and cultivated; and that by establishing the capital in the bay of Todos Santos, it would be extremely convenient and centrical for the purposes of commerce; but the rigour and cruelty with which the first founders treated the poor Indians were a sufficiont obstacle against his bringing about his laudable designs. The mustees, who are the descendants of the Spaniards and the natives, having kept on good terms with both parties, were the means by which all things were brought to a mutual reconciliation. The government was then vested in some priests of acknowledged virtue: these immediately scattered themselves over the whole coast, founding settlements, and penetrating into the interior; they first discovered the different gold-mines, which have been since worked to such prodigious emolument; as also the mines of diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones. The mines of Cuiaba have been worked since the year 1740, and yielded great quantities of gold.

Formerly Bahia de Todos Santos, or the bay of All Saints, was the principal seat of the government, and chief mart of the commerce of Brazil; but the discovery of the gold and diamond mines, within a short distance of Rio de Janeiro, and communicating directly with it, has given a decided superiority to the latter. The manner in which the former of these were discovered is differently related; but the most common account is, that the Indians on the back of the Portuguese settlements were observed to make use of gold for their fish-hooks; and inquiry being made as to their manner of procuring this metal, it appeared that considerable quantities of it were annually washed from the mountains and left among the gravel and sand that remained in the vallies, after the running off or evaporation of the water. From the time of this discovery, considerable quantities of gold were imported into Europe from Brazil; and these imports have gradually augmented, since new mines have been wrought in many of the other provinces. The extraction of this precious metal is neither very laborious nor attended with the smallest danger in this part of the New World. The purest sort is generally found near the surface of the soil, though it is sometimes necessary to dig for it to the depth of three or four fathoms. It is usually incumbent on a bed of sandy earth, termed by the natives saibro. Though, for the most part, the veins that are regular and run in the same direction, are the richest, it has been observed that those spaces, the surface of which was most spangled with crystals, were those which furnished the greatest plenty of gold. It is found in larger pieces on the

mountains and barren or stony rocks than in the vallies S. AME. or on the banks of rivers. But in whatever place it RICA may have been gathered, it is of 23 carats on coming Geographiout of the mine, unless it be mixed with sulphur, silver, cal details. iron, or mercury; a circumstance that rarely occurs, except at Goyas and Araès.

Every man who discovered a mine was obliged to give notice of it to the government. If it was conceived to be of little consequence by those persons appointed to examine its value, it was always given up to the public: but if, on the contrary, it was found to be a rich vein, the government never failed to reserve a portion of it for themselves. Another share was given to the commandant; a third to the intendant; and two shares were awarded to the discoverers: the remainder was divided amongst the miners of the district, in proportion to their circumstances, which were determined by the number of their slaves. The disputes to which this species of property gave rise fell under the cognizance of the intendant, with the right of appeal from his decrees to the supreme court established at Lisbon, under the title of council d'outremer.

It is said that a slender vein of this metal runs through the whole country, at about twenty-four feet from the surface; but it is too thin and poor to answer the expence of digging. Gold is always, however, to be col, lected in the beds of rivers which have pursued the same course for a considerable time; and, therefore, to be able to divert a stream from its usual channel is es teemed an infallible source of gain.

The employment of searching the bottoms of rivers and torrents, and washing the gold from the mud and sand, is principally performed by slaves, who are chiefly negroes, of whom the Portuguese keep great numbers for that purpose. By a particular regulation, these slaves are obliged to furnish their master every day with the eighth part of an ounce of gold; and if, by their industry or good fortune, they collect a larger quantity, the surplus is considered as their own property, and they are allowed to dispose of it as they think fit; by which means, some negroes have, it is said, purchased slaves of their own, and lived in great splendour; their original master having no other de mand upon them than the daily supply of an eighth of an ounce, which amounts to about nine shillings ster ling; the Portuguese ounce being somewhat lighter than our troy ounce.

The proprietors of the mines paid to the king of Portugal, as above-mentioned, a fifth part of the gold which they extracted by operations more or less suc cessful; and this fifth of the gold obtained from all the mines in Brazil was estimated, at an average, to amount annually to about 300,000. sterling: consequently the whole capital must be nearly 1,500,000l. sterling. If we add to this the gold exchanged with the Spaniards for silver, and what was privately brought to Europe without paying the duty, which amounted to 500,000l. more, the annual produce of the Brazilian mines was about 2,000,000l. sterling; an immense sum to be found in a country which a few years ago was not known to produce a single grain.

Among the many impediments thrown in the way of trade, may be ranked the prohibition which prevented the people of Brazil from working up the gold of their own mines. Even the tools and instruments used by

S. AME- the artificers for such purposes, were seized and confiscated by the strong hand of arbitrary power.

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cal details.

It was only about the beginning of the last century Geographi that diamonds made a part of the exports from Brazil to Europe. These valuable stones are, like the gold, found frequently in the beds of rivers and torrents. Before they were supposed to be of any value, they were often perceived in washing the gold, and were consequently thrown away with the sand and gravel; and numbers of large stones, that would have enriched the possessors, passed unregarded through the hands of several persons wholly ignorant of their nature. The diamonds sent from the New to the Old World were enclosed in a casket with three locks, the keys of which were separately put into the hands of the chief members of administration; and those keys were deposited in another casket, to which was affixed the viceroy's seal. While the exclusive privilege subsisted, this precious deposit, on its arrival in Europe, was remitted to government, which, according to a settled regulation, retained the very scarce diamonds, which exceeded twenty carats, and delivered every year, for the profit of the company, to one, or to several contractors united, 40,000 carats, at prices which have successively varied. An engagement was made on one hand to receive that quantity; and on the other not to distribute any more; and whatever might be the produce of the mines, which necessarily varied, the contract was faithfully adhered to.

Before the recent changes in the Portuguese government, that court threw 60,000 carats of diamonds into trade, which was monopolized by a single merchant, who paid for them at the rate of about 17. 11s. 6d. per carat, amounting in the whole to 130,000l. sterling. The contraband trade in this article is said, by persons competent to form a just estimate on the subject, to have amounted to a tenth more; so that the produce of these mines, the riches of which have been so much boasted of, did not exceed annually 143,000. The rough diamonds used to be purchased from the merchants in Lisbon, and other places in Portugal, by the English and the Dutch, who, after cutting and polishing them with more or less perfection, disposed of what remained, after supplying the demand of their own countries, to other nations of Europe. In the diamond and mine districts are found, between the parasitic stones, some very imperfect amethysts and topazes; as also sapphires and emeralds, and some fine chrysolites. Jacinths or granites are sometimes discovered in the interstices of talc, or micaceous stones; these, as well as some other precious stones, never having been subjected to a monopoly like diamonds; those who discovered them were at perfect liberty to dispose of them in the manner they deemed most conducive to their interest.

The annual exportation of these stones from Janeiro, and some of the other ports, seldom exceeded 6,2501. for which the government received a duty of one per cent. amounting in the whole to the trifling sum of 621. 10s. sterling. Mines of iron, sulphur, antimony, tin, lead, and quick silver, are likewise found in this and other provinces of Brazil; but the pursuit of gold has too much diverted the attention of the colonists from more useful speculations. It was long supposed copper had been withheld by nature from this vast and fruitful region of the new hemisphere; but later

that

State

§ III. Political and Moral State of South America. Amongst the inhabitants of South America, and Polic more particularly amongst the Peruvians and all classes and Ma of the European Spaniards, pride and laziness are said to be the predominant passions. Avarice may, likewise, be attributed to them with a great deal of propriety. The Indians and negroes are forbidden, under the severest penalties, to intermarry; for division between these two classes is the greatest instrument in which the Spaniards trust for the preservation of the colonies.

tribes.

The INDIAN TRIBES that have not been reduced into The Lad settlements by the different missionaries, are said to maintain their original character in the highest degree. They are described as valorous and hardy, but cruel, stupid, and faithless, and incapable of being reduced under the laws of civil society. Several attempts appear to have been made to better the moral condition of the Indians of Darien, but they were as often drawn back to their idolatrous ways, and retired into their native mountains. They live by fishing and the chase, in which latter they are very dexterous, and extremely skilful in the use of the bow and arrow: their bows are made of a very strong but flexible kind of wood, called chonta; and their arrows of a species of light cane called viruli, the point being of fish-bones, or of the same chonta roasted or burnt. Their favourite food is the flesh of monkies, and there are an incredible variety of these animals here. They are much addicted to inebriety and sensual gratifications; for the former, they make use of a kind of drink called mazato, which is a fermentation of maize and plantains: they go almost naked, and wear only a cloth which serves to cover them in front, and which they call panequiri. They all deck themselves for dress-ornaments with some small golden rings pendant from the nose, the gristle of which is bored for this purpose directly after their children are born: no less care is observed in cultivating the growth of the hair, and of permitting it to flow down unconfined. The women adorn both their legs and arms with strings of coral, beads of glass and of gold. The priests, who are called leres, and to whom singular respect is shown, paint their faces of various colours, making incisions to insert the bitumen that they use, and which never leaves them, but renders them for ever after horrible and deformed. It has been affirmed by some that these priests have communication with the devil, and that they are, upon this account, confirmed in their unnatural and beastly customs.

When the Spaniards entered Cuzco, one of the chief Peru cities of Peru, they were astonished by the grandeur and magnificence of the edifices, of the fortress, and the temple of the sun; and upon their entering the city, in 1534, when the same was taken possession of by Don Francisco Pizarro, for Charles V., it was then the capital of the whole empire of Peru, and the residence of the emperors. Its streets were large, wide, and straight; though, at the present day, Lima stands in