ALBE.. ALBAR- gon wool, is produced in large quantities in the neighRAZIN. bourhood. It is about 100 miles E. from Madrid. ALBARREGAS, an extensive river of South America, in New Granada. It has its sources in the Bogotian mountains, and discharges its waters into the lake Maracaibo. ALBASANO, a town of Albania, in European Turkey, about 45 miles from Durazzo, 150 S. W. of Sophia, and nearly 400 from Constantinople. ALBATI EQUI, in Antiquity, a name given to those horses in the public games who were caparisoned in white, and who were thus distinguished from the prasini, rusiati, and veneti. ALBATROSS, in Ornithology, a name given by English navigators to the DIOMEDEA, a marine bird, found in various seas. It has the bill straight, the upper mandible hooked at the point, and the lower truncated; the nostrils oval, wide, and prominent; the tongue very small; and three toes all placed forward. Only four species of this bird have been known; the wandering albatross, or man-of-war bird, chiefly found within the tropics; the chocolate albatross, which inhabits the Pacific ocean; the yellow-nosed albatross, found in the southern hemisphere, from 30° to 60° from the pole and the sooty albatross, inhabiting the seas within the antarctic circle. ALBATROSS POINT, a high craggy cape of New Zealand, in 38°, 4'. S. lat. and 184°, 42'. W. lon. It was so named by Captain Cook, in his first voyage round the world, on account of the great number of the wandering albatrosses seen by him in these parts. ALBATROSS ISLAND is on the N. of Van Diemen's Land. S. lat. 40°, 25'. E. lon. 144°, 41′. It derives its name from the same circumstance as the cape above mentioned. ALBAY, a mountain in the island of Luçon (the largest of the Philippine islands), subject to frequent volcanic eruptions. The last of which we have any account took place in the year 1814, making the most dreadful havoc in the neighbourhood, and destroying many thousands of the inhabitants. Douglas. Book v. JESS. Who are you, tell me for more certainty, Shakespeare. Merchant of Venice, act ii. Spenser. Faerie Queene, book v. c. 2. themselues. Albeit the world think Machiavel is dead, To view this land and frolic with his friends. ALBE, a small German coin, valued at a sol and seven derniers French. ALBEGAL, in Astronomy, an Arabian name for the star Lystra. ALBEGNA, a river in the duchy of Tuscany, in Middle Italy, which throws itself into the lake Orbitello by a canal. ALBELEN, or ALBULLA, in Ichthyology, a fish of a fine silvery colour, found chiefly in the German lakes, and weighing from six to eight or ten pounds. ALBEMARLE, a county of Virginia, in North America, between the Blue Ridge and the Tide Waters. It comprehends an area of about thirty-five square miles, and contained, in 1810, 12,585 inhabitants. ALBEMARLE SOUND, in North America, on the coast of North Carolina. This is a very extensive piece of water, or rather, as it has been aptly called, a kind of inland sea. It communicates with Pamplico sound, and receives the rivers Roanoke and Meherrin. ALBEMARLE, more generally called AUMULE, OF AUMARLE, is a small town of France, in Upper Normandy. It is the head of a canton, in the department of the Lower Seine, arrondissement of Neufchâtel, and is chiefly interesting to an English reader from having conferred the title of duke on General Monk, "because," says Baker in his Chronicle, "he was descended from Margaret, one of the daughters and co-heirs of Richard Beauchampe, Earl of Albemarle and Warwick." The family of the Keppels are now earls of Albemarle. They were raised to the peerage in 1696. The dukedom is extinct. ALBEN, a town of Inner Carniola, in Austria, circle of Adelsberg. It is situated amidst high mountains and sterile deserts. There are, however, some mines of mercury in the neighbourhood. ALBENGA, or ALBENGUA, anciently called Albium, Ingaunum, or Albingaunum, a town and bishoprick of Genoa, lying about 30 miles S. W. of that city, and between Finale and Oneglia. The bishop is a suffragan of the archbishop of Genoa; but the town is almost deserted on account of the insalubrity of its soil, and has suffered much devastation from various wars. The country around produces olive-trees and hemp in some abundance. E. lon. 8°, l'. N. lat. 44°. ALBE ALBEO LA ALBENQUE, a small town in Quercy, in France, in the department of the Lot, arrondissement of Cahors. It was formerly under the intendancy and election of Montauban, from which place it is distant about eight leagues, but is at present the head of a canton, and contains about 1900 inhabitants. ALBENREUTH, NEW and OLD, two villages of Bavaria, considerable as well for their size as for the produce of their mines of cobalt and the iron works of the neighbourhood. They are situate on the Bohemian frontier of the Upper Palatinate. ALBEOLA, in Ornithology, the white and black sarcelle, or nun, of Buffon; and the white duck of Edwards. It is found in America, from Carolina to Hudson's bay, and is called the spirit by the Newfoundland fishermen. ALBERNUO in Commerce, a kind of camlet, brought by way of the Levant into Marseilles. ALBERTISTS, in the History of the Middle Ages, a sect of scholastics, taking their name from Albertus Magnus, a man of superior erudition, who was honoured with the title of a magician, and regarded by the alchymists as one of the most successful of their brethren. ALBERTUS, in Commerce, a gold coin, in value about 14 livres French, or 11s. 8d. of our money. It was of the mint of Albertus, archduke of Austria. ALBESZTI, a market town, situate between the rivers Proava and Chiricon, and near the Syul, in Wallachia. It is about 70 miles N. E. of the large town Bucharest. ALBI, in Abruzzo Ultra, in the kingdom of Naples, which gives the title of a county. It is about six miles W. of Celano. ALBI, OF ALBIE, a small town situate in the district of Genevois, in Savoy, N. E. of Chambery about seven leagues. ALBI, or ALBY, a town of France, in Languedoc, the capital of the department of Tarn, about 340 miles south of Paris. Before the late revolution, this was the capital of the district of Albigeois, which has been supposed to give their name to the Paulicians, or Albigenses. This town is mentioned in history as a place of some consequence, as early as the fifth century. The zealots of the revolution destroyed many relics of antiquity here; but even at present it exhibits some valuable architectural remains. The cathedral, dedicated to St. Cecilia, is described as possessing one of the finest choirs in the kingdom. The archiepiscopal palace (for, prior to the late changes, this was the seat of an archbishop) is finely situated, and commands a pleasing prospect. The promenade, called La Lice, is a very beautiful walk. A few linen and woollen stuffs, baize, and serge, are manufactured here. The number of inhabitants is estimated at about 10,000. ALBIANIA, CAPE, a head-land on the extremity of the island of Cyprus, on the N. W. shore. E. lon. 32°, 18'. N. lat, 35°, 10′. · ALBICILLA, in Ornithology, a species of the Linnæan FALCO, called the great erne, by Buffon. It is about the size of a peacock, and is sometimes found in the northern parts of Scotland, and the adjoining islands. ALBIFICATION, album facere, to make white. And of wateres albification. Unslekked lime, &c. Chaucer. The Chanones Yemannes Tale, book ii. ALBIGENSES, in Ecelesiastical History, the name of a religions sect of the twelfth century, who were eminently distinguished by their opposition to the church of Rome, and who from the importance of many of the sentiments for which they contended, as well from the zeal with which they maintained them under severe persecutions, have been enrolled in the honourable catalogue of reformers. The remoteness of the age in which they lived, and the difficulties attending the detection of facts, amidst ALBIimperfect and often contradictory documents, ren- GENSES. der it almost impossible to give any very minute and accurate detail, either of their origin or progress. They have been frequently considered as essentially the same with the Waldenses, a question we shall have occasion to notice under that article, remarking, in the mean time, that no evidence of this identity can be deduced from (what writers on this subject have often pleaded) their being confounded with them, and condemned under their name, by the decrees of their enemies; since nothing is more common, even in the present enlightened age, than to class different, and even opposing parties in religion under the same obnoxious and indiscriminating term, for the sake of condemning them all with the least expence of thought. Waving, however, this subject for the present, we may briefly state, that they first made their appearance in the vicinity of Toulouse, and the Albigeois in Languedoc, and may, with probability, be considered as a sect of the Paulicians, who, having withdrawn from Bulgaria and Thrace, either to escape persecution, or from motives of zeal to extend their doctrines, settled in various parts of Europe. They acquired different names in different countries, as in Italy, whither they originally migrated, they were called Paterini and Cathari, and in France Albigenses, from the circumstance, as Mosheim affirms, of their opinions being condemned in a council held at Alby (Lat. Albigia) in the year 1176. Others, however, maintain that this appellation was derived from the district itself which was their chief residence, Albigensium being formerly the general name of Narbonne-Gaul. Besides these epithets, they were called, in different times and places, and by various authors, Bulgarians, Publicans, Boni Homines, or good men, Petro-Brussians, Henricians, Abelardists, Arnoldists, and Passagers. In fact, the term was frequently employed to denote any description of heretic or dissentient from the Romish church. Hence it becomes extremely difficult to ascertain their peculiar opinions with precision. Upon the authority of several writers, they are charged with holding Manicheism, in which is said to have consisted their chief disagreement from the Waldenses, who are allowed to have held a purer reformed faith. The book of the Sentences of the Inquisition at Toulouse charges them with believing that there are two Gods and Lords, good and evil; that all things visible and corporeal were created by the devil, or the evil god; that the sacraments of the Romish church are vain and unprofitable; and that, in short, its whole constitution is to be condemned. They are stated to have maintained the unlawfulness of marriage; to have denied the incarnation of Christ, and the resurrection of bodies; and to have believed that the souls of men were spirits banished from heaven on account of their transgressions. These representations must of course be taken cum grano salis, since they proceed from adversaries; and it is, in truth, most probable that their chief sin consisted in 'rejecting the superstitions of the Romish church, the advocates of which, in consequence, endeavoured to render them odious, by imputing to them doctrines which they never believed, and concealing from view excellencies both of faith and practice for which they were really distinguished, Admitting that they did blend many errors with their system, it ALBI ALBINO. is sufficiently obvious that they possessed much truth, GENSES. and were willing to suffer for its sake. A crusade was formed against them, at the commencement of the thirteenth century, and Innocent III. admonished all princes to oppress and expel them from their dominions. Their chief protector was Raymond, earl of Toulouse, whose friendship drew upon his head the thunders of excommunication. The legate who bore the papal decree was accompanied by twelve Cistertian monks, who promised a plenary remission of sins to all who engaged in the holy league against the Albigenses. Dominick, the inventor of the Inquisition, joined in the service, and Raymond, after much resistance, at length yielded to terror, solicitation, and selfinterest. In the year 1209 the dreadful war began, and Simon, the celebrated earl of Montfort, became generalissimo of the army. Notwithstanding the intrepidity displayed by the objects of this military persecution, town after town was captured, and the poor people, who were stigmatised with the name of heretics, but whom Hume (Hist. vol. ii.) has characterised as "the most innocent and the most inoffensive of man ALBI kind," were hanged, slaughtered, and burnt, without ALE mercy. The earl of Toulouse was assisted by the GENS kings of England and Arragon, but he lost his dominions, and in vain appealed to the Council of Lateran. Raising some forces in Spain, while his son Raymond exerted himself in Provence, he regained the city of Toulouse, and part of his possessions. The earl died in 1221, and his son succeeded to the dominions he had recovered; but pope Honorius III. stimulated Lewis of France to engage in the contest, and though he encountered numerous difficulties, Raymond was necessitated at length to obtain peace upon very degrading conditions, and finally relinquished his Protestantism; the Albigenses became dispersed, and excited no further attention till they united with the Vaudois, and amalgamated with the Genevan reformed church. ALBIN, or AUBIN, a small town of France, in the department of the Aveyron, and the arrondissement of Ville Franche. It contains about 3200 inhabitants, and lies eight leagues N. W. of Rhodes. E. lon. 20, 20'. N. lat. 44°, 31'. ALBIN O. ALBINO, or LEUCETHIOP, the designation of a variety of the human species, that frequently occurs in Africa. Instances are also occasionally met with in different parts of Europe; but it has been more remarked in tribes which are generally of a dark complexion; and it is a well-known fact, that races, the hue of whose skin approaches most nearly to black, are in general most liable to deviations in colour. Albinos have been seen in the Indies, in Borneo, in New Guinea, in Java, and in Ceylon. Ptolemy and Pliny + apply the term Leucaethiopes to a tribe of people in Nigritia. The Portuguese first gave the name of Albino to the white negro. The most prominent peculiarities of the Albino may be enumerated as appertaining to the eye, the skin, and the hair. The iris of the eye is either of a bright red hue, or of a blue colour; and the organ of sight is peculiarly sensible to the impression of light. The skin is either uncommonly fair, such as is seen in the most exquisite examples of the sanguineous temperament, or it is of a dull white colour, similar to that of a recently dead body. The hair is either white and silky, or of a very light flaxen colour; and, according to Dr. Prichard, when this variety springs up among negroes, the woolly excrescence which covers the heads of that race is white. Dapper, in his " Description de l'Afrique," describes this variety as occurring in Lower Ethiopia, and remarks, that they have flaxen hair, blue eyes, the countenance and body so white, that at a distance they may be mistaken for Europeans; but when approached, the difference is readily perceived. He observes also, that the colour of the skin is not that of a bright or natural white, but pale and livid, like that of a dead body, or of one affected with the leprosy; that their eyes are weak by day, but that by the light of the moon they are brilliant, and their sense of sight strong. They generally sleep during the day, and go abroad in the night. They are mostly males; are not so robust and vigorous as other men, but are exceedingly active during the night; and when the moon shines, they run through the forests with as much alacrity as other men do in the brightest day-light. Dapper further remarks, that they are put to labour in the mines of Brasil, but that they prefer death to a life of slavery. The negroes regard them as monsters, and therefore endeavour to prevent them from multiplying their species. As the sight of Albinos is so feeble during the day that they are almost incapable of discerning any object, the negroes, their enemies, attack them during that time, and readily secure them. * Similar characters to those which have been remarked in the Albino may be observed in various species of animals, both wild and domesticated. These characters have been met with in apes, squirrels, rabbits, rats, mice, hamsters, hogs, moles, opossums, martins, pole-cats, goats, and sometimes, though rarely, in foxes. † They have been seen in the buffalo,t in the cervus capreolus, or common roe; † in the elephant, though but rarely; † in the badger, and the beaver. In Norway they have been remarked to occur in the common species of bear; § and in Siberia, in the dromedary, or Bactrian camel. Several species of birds, as crows, blackbirds, canary birds, partridges, fowls, and peacocks, exhibit similar phenomena, having * Blumenbach, de Generis Humani Varietate Nativa. + Shaw's Zoology. + Pennant's History of Quadrupeds. Pallas, Spicileg. Zoolog. Fascic. 14. Shaw's Zoology. INO. their feathers of a pure white colour and their eyes red." M. Buffon does not regard the Albinos as forming a particular race, but as individuals who have accidentally degenerated from their original stock; and considers the production of whites by negro parents as supporting his opinion. According to this author, they are among the negroes what Wafer tells us the white Indians are among the yellow or copper-coloured Indians of Darien; and, probably, what the Chacrelas and Bedas are among the brown Indians of the East. "It is singular (he remarks) that this variation of nature takes place from black to white only, and not from white to black. It is no less singular, that all the people in the East Indies, in Africa, and in America, where these white men appear, lie under the same latitude: the Isthmus of Darien, the negro country, and the island of Ceylon, are under the very same parallel. White then (he continues) appears to be the primitive colour of nature, which may be varied by climate, by food, and by manners, to yellow, brown, and black; and which, in certain circumstances, return, but so greatly altered that it has no resemblance to the primitive whiteness."+ Wafer, who accompanied Dampier in his voyage round the world, gives the following very curious and interesting account of the Albinos which are occasionally found among the Indians who inhabit the Isthmus of Darien: "6 They are white, and there are of thein of both sexes; yet there are but few of them in comparison of the copper-coloured, possibly but one to two or three hundred. They differ from the other Indians chiefly in respect of colour, though not in that only. Their skins are not of such a white as those of fair people among Europeans, with some tincture of a blush or sanguine complexion; neither yet is their complexion like that of our paler people, but it is rather a milk-white, lighter than the colour of any Europeans, and much like that of a white horse. "For there is this further remarkable in them, that their bodies are beset all over, more or less, with a fine, short, milk-white down, which adds to the whiteness of their skins; for they are not so thick-set with this down, especially on the cheeks and forehead, but that their skin appears distinct from it. The men would probably have white bristles for beards, did they not prevent them by their custom of plucking the young beard up by the roots continually. Their eye-brows are milk-white also, and so is the hair of their heads, and very fine withal, about the length of six or eight inches, and inclining to a curl. 66 They are not so big as the other Indians, and what is yet more strange, their eye-lids bend, and open in an oblong figure, pointing downwards at the corners, and forming an arch, or figure of a crescent, with the points downwards. From hence, and from their seeing so clear as they do in a moon-shiny night, we used to call them moon-eyed. For they see not very well in the sun, poring in the clearest day, their eyes being but weak, and running with water if the sun shines towards them; so that in the day-time they care not to go abroad, unless it be a cloudy dark day. Besides, they are but a weak people, in comparison of the others, and not very fit for hunting or other laborious exercise, Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of Man, p. 18. + Buffon's Natural History, by W. Smellie, v. iii. p. 181. nor do they delight in any such. But notwithstanding ALBINO. their being thus sluggish and dull in the day-time, yet when moon-shiny nights come, they are all life and activity, running abroad and into the woods, and skipping about like wild bucks, and running as fast by moon-light, even in the gloom and shade of the woods, as the other Indians by day; being as nimble as they, though not so strong and lusty. The copper-coloured Indians seem not to respect them so much as those of their own complexion, looking on them as something monstrous. They are not a distinct race by themselves, but now and then one is bred of a copper-coloured father and mother; and I have seen of less than a year old of this sort. Some would be apt to suspect they might be the offspring of some European father; but, besides that the Europeans come little here, and have little commerce with the Indian women when they do come, these white people are as different from the Europeans in some respects, as from the coppercoloured Indians in others. "But neither is the child of a man and woman of these white Indians, white like the parents, but coppercoloured as their parents were. For so Lacenta (the chief of one of the Indian tribes) told me, and gave me this as his conjecture, how these came to be white, that it was through the force of the mother's imagination, looking on the moon at the time of the conception; but this I leave others to judge of. He told me withal, that they were but short lived." M. Saussure, in his "Voyage dans les Alpes," has given a very particular account of two young persons at Chaumoni, whom he denominates Albinos. One of them was about twenty or twenty-one years of age, and the other about two years younger. The eldest had a dull look, with thickish lips, but his features, in other respects, were not different from those of other people. The youngest was of a more agreeable figure, and more sprightly. Their eyes were not blue; the iris was rose-coloured; and the pupil, when viewed in the light, appeared red; whence he infers, that the interior membranes were deprived of the uvea, and of the black mucous matter with which they should have been covered. In their infancy, their hair, eye-brows, eye-lashes, and the down upon their skin, were very fine, and of a perfect milk-white colour; but, at the age above-mentioned, the hair was of a reddish cast, and more strong. Their sight was also strengthened, and, even in their infancy, was not much offended by the light of the day. They were unable to labour with persons of their age, and were maintained by the charity of a relation. Although they had not the thick lips and flat noses of the white negroes, this difference is owing, as M. Saussure thinks, to their being Al, binos of Europe, and not of Africa. The malady that affects the eyes, the complexion, and the colour of the hair, enfeebles also their strength, without altering the conformation of their features; and of this malady, he apprehends, there are different degrees; so that it produces, in various instances, different effects. He at first ascribed it to an organic debility; in consequence of which a relaxation of the lymphatic vessels within the eye might admit the globules of the blood in tog great abundance into the iris, uvea, and even the retina, and thus occasion the redness of the iris and of the pupil. This debility, he supposed, might account for the intolerance of the light, and for the whiteness ALBINO. of the hair. But Professor Blumenbach, of the University of Gottingen, attributes it to a different cause. He has observed the same phenomenon in brutes, in white dogs, and in owls; and he says that it generally occurs in warm-blooded animals, and that he has never found it in cold-blooded ones. He is of opinion, that the redness of the iris, and of the other internal parts of the eye, as well as the extreme sensibility that accompanies it, is owing to the total privation of that brown or blackish mucus, which, about the fifth week after conception, covers all the interior parts of the eye in its sound state. He observes, that Simon Pontius, in his treatise" De Coloribus Oculorum," long ago remarked, that the interior membranes of blue eyes are less abundantly provided with this black mucus, and are therefore more sensible of the action of light. He adds, that this sensibility of blue eyes is very conformable to the situation of northern people during their long twilight; and that, on the contrary, the deep black in the eyes of negroes enables them to bear the strong glare of the sun's beams in the torrid zone. As to the connection between this red colour of the eyes and the whiteness of the skin and hair, he says it is owing to a similarity of structure, consensus ex similitudine fabrica. He asserts, that this black mucus is formed only in the delicate cellular substance, which has numerous bloodvessels contiguous to it, but contains no fat like the inside of the eye, the skin of negroes, the spotted palate of several domestic animals, &c.; and the colour of the hair, he adds, generally corresponds with that of the iris.*. What Blumenbach conjectured to be the condition of the eye in the Albino, M. Buzzi, surgeon to the hospital at Milan, had the opportunity of demonstrating by the dissection of that organ in a peasant, who died, at the age of thirty years, of a pulmonary disease. This man was remarkable for the uncommon whiteness of his skin, hair, beard, and all the other covered parts of his body. M. Buzzi found the iris of the eye perfectly white, and the pupil of a rose colour; and the eyes were altogether destitute of that black membrane, called the uvea, which was not discernible, either behind the iris, or under the retina. Within the eye there was only found the choroid coat, extremely thin, and tinged of a pale red colour, by vessels filled with discoloured blood. The skin, when separated from different parts of the body, appeared to be almost wholly divested of the rete-mucosum, nor was the least trace of it to be discovered by maceration, even in the wrinkles of the abdomen, where it is most abundant and most visible, The defective vision of the Albino during the daytime, appears to be owing to the want of what is called the nigrum pigmentum. This pigment, which, in the eyes of other individuals, is of a black or deep brown colour, lies between the choroid coat and the retina, and is in immediate contact with the latter. It serves to suffocate the rays of light after they have impinged on the sensible surface of the retina. The dark pigment, or mucous substance, we know to be almost peculiar to those animals which see in the brightest day-light; whereas, in nocturnal animals, or those which seek their prey during the night, as the lion, tiger, &c. the choroid is of a white or greenish colour. In the Al Gazette Litt. de Gottingue, Oct. 1784. + Opuscoli Scelti de Milan, 1784, tom. vii. p. 11, The bino the pigment is wanting; and the choroid coat ALBINO. being exceedingly vascular, the blood shines through, and communicates its colour. The eyes of these persons, therefore, appear of a rose-red colour. ciliary processes forming the anterior margin of the choroid coat are, in a perfect eye, also covered with à black pigment, and hereby all rays of light that enter by the side of the chrystalline lens are suffocated. The posterior part of the iris is likewise covered with a black pigment, which in the Albino is wanting. From these circumstances we can readily conceive why the eye of the Albino is so exceedingly sensible to light, and their vision só defective during the day, and, at the same time, account for its perfection during the evening, or by the light of the moon. The whiteness of the skin in the Albino is owing to the extreme delicacy, if not to the entire absence, of the rete-mucosum, concerning the nature of which physiologists have entertained such various opinions. According to Bichât, the internal portion of the hair consists apparently of two systems of minute vessels. One of these has the functions of the vascular system in general, and affords a passage to excreted fluids; the other contains the colouring matter in the form of a stagnant fluid, the absence of which in the Albino occasions the whiteness, or flaxen colour, of the hair. There appears to be a constant relation preserved between the complexion of the skin, the colour of the hair, and the hue of the pigment of the eye. This is clearly shown in the Albino, and in all kinds of animals liable to a similar variety. It is by no means correct to regard the Albino as being afflicted with disease. There is defective organization, but not morbid action. The phenomena which result from the absence of the black pigment, &c. in this variety of the human species, point out, in the clearest manner, the uses to which these parts, as far as connected with the organ of vision, are subservient in the animal economy. On a general survey of the animal and vegetable world, we perceive no law of which the influence appears to prevail more extensively than that of the tendency to assume, under circumstances not well ascertained, varieties of form and colour. There is scarcely any species which does not exhibit some disposition of this kind; and its effects are particularly manifest among warm-blooded animals. The science of physiology must be much further advanced, and we require to have far more accurate views of the general process of reproduction than we already possess, before it will be possible for us to ascertain with precision the causes of such deviations. We may, however, in general observe, that when the condition of each species is uniform, and does not differ materially from the natural and original state, the appearances are more constant, and the phenomena of variation, if they in any degree display themselves, are more rare and less conspicuous than when the race has either been brought, by human art, into a state of cultivation, or domestication, or has been thrown casually into circumstances very different from their simple and primary condition. The condition of man is more diversified than that of almost any other species; for the human kind is exposed to the most various agency of external causes, being spread through more extensive regions than any other race, inhabiting all gradations of cli |