Nantwich-E. Jones; This familiar Miscellany, from which religious and political matters are excluded, contains a variety of original and selected Articles: comprehending Literature, Criticism, Men and Manners Co. Booksellers; E. Marl Burslem-S. Brougham; Bury-J. Kay; Brastel-Hillyard & Morgan; Doncaster-C. & J. White. No. 244-VOL. V. Natural History. LETTERS G'asgow-Robertson&Co.; Manchester-Silburn & Co.; Halifax-N. Whitely; Huddersfield-T. Smart; ON THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GLOBE. BY M. ALEX. B. La legère couche de vie, qui fleurit à la surface du globe, ne more que des ruines.-Paris: printed, 1824. LETTER VIII. —ALLUVIAL SOIL. J. Fletcher; T. Sowler ; TUESDAY, MARCH 1, 1825. | Stockport-J. Dawson ; Southport-W. Garside; Wigan-Mrs. Critchley; PRICE 34d fossils we have learned, as I have already said, that the globe has not always had the same envelope; that the layers of soil have been deposited slowly in a liquid, and that that liquid gradually changed its nature. It has also enabled us to ascertain the composition of the different layers, and that, although most of them are of marine formation, some have been deposited by fresh waters. Finally, we shall, by the same means, be able to prove, that these layers have been left bare more than once, in consequence of the removal of the liquid, and that the changes that have taken place have been sudden. these plants, although several of them are broken, are never found bent or folded together; they are all flat. tened out in their full extent, as if they had been pressed between the hands. They must, therefore, have been deposited gently in a soft substance, which has, since, gradually become hard, and preserved them in its interior. A proof, not less convincing of the formation of our soil, by the tranquil abode of the sea upon the continents, ex"permalated expressly for the Kaleidoscope from a recent French work. ists in the uniform composition of the horizontal layers, in a great extent of land, and even in mountains actually separated from each other by valleys, or arms of the sea. In these mountains, the layers, situated at equal heights, France has the happiness of possessing a naturalist, I hope, Madam, that you are sufficiently convinced, by are found to succeed each other in so similar a manner, whose life cannot fail to form a brilliant epoch in the last letter, of the existence of marine bodies in the in- that they must evidently have been deposited at the same history of science. M. Cuvier, who is indued with great ior of the continents, as well near the summit of the time, and in the same waters, before the great revolutions powers of observation, and has acquired a profound knowghest mountains, as in the lowest cavities of the deepest by which they were separated. That they formerly con-ledge of the laws of nature, has succeeded in recomposing, leys. You will also admit that they are the remains of stituted one mass, and have since been wrenched asunder, from fossil remains, dug out of the earth (which are genearine animals, which could not have been deposited where is apparent from the mutual correspondence of their sa- rally in a very imperfect state) the skeletons of most of sy are, except by the sea. Consequently it is demon-lient and retiring angles. the animals to which they have belonged. He has, by ated to you, that the ocean must, during some period of this means, enriched science with the knowledge of a efinite duration, have covered the part of the earth great number of terrestrial quadrupeds, entirely unknown before his time. ich we now inhabit. All these facts, Madam, lead us to conclude, that the remains of marine bodies, which the sea has left in our continents, are the result of a tranquil abode of its waters But was it in consequence of a sudden increase of water, there; and we must seek elsewhere proofs of the deluge, it the sea, dragging violently along with it all the pro-attested by the religious traditions of all countries. ctions inclosed in its bosom, transported them promiswasly to the places which it invaded ? A moment's retion will convince us that this cannot have been the race. The study of terrestrial animals is even more important than that of marine animals, because, as their race is better known, we may more easily discover whether or not they belong to species, or genera, now extinct. They also indicate that the layers in which they are found have been once left dry, and then again inundated, and sometimes that this second inundation took place suddenly, as we shall presently see. Besides, it is evident that a marine irruption must have destroyed all the terrestrial animals living on the surface of the soil, whilst it is supposed that the marine animals, at least a large part of them, might still continue to exist. We may therefore hope to find, in a series of successive layers, all the terrestrial animals living upon them, when the several irruptions of the sea took place. It is evident that the abode of the sea, upon the continents, must have been of very long duration, in order to form depositions so considerable; especially, as the organic productions which they inclose have experienced would, in fact, be impossible to conceive, first, how very perceptible modifications, in consequence of the changes Tea could have removed enormous heaps of shells, suf- that have taken place in the temperature and composition intly extensive, as I have before said, to cover several of the waters. The most ancient fossil shells do not at dred leagues of land; secondly, admitting that it had all resemble those now contained in the sea, which have sported them, how it could have caused them to pene-gradually changed their nature; but, although they do not to the interior of the soil, and have deposited them belong to species known in our days, they may, at least, he places where they are now found; since, to produce be included in the same genus. This difference, however, effects it must have decomposed the surface of is a convincing proof that they are of much greater ancontinents to immense depths. Besides, as the remains tiquity than the first period of the existence of the human marine bodies are frequently found inclosed in the lest stones, they also must have been liquified, and reAt the beginning of the last century, the only data, d to soft paste; a supposition so contrary to all pro- which served to explain the internal composition of the dity, and possibility, that it cannot be admitted. If globe, and the formation of the layers constituting its pass over these insurmountable difficulties, we meet most superficial envelope, were furnished by the facts I s, not less great. If the shells had been violently have just laid before you. All the theories, therefore, ried away by the waters, they must all have been bro-invented upon the subject were exceedingly vague and by their friction against each other, and by being unsatisfactory. The most intelligent writers perceived hed against the rocks, and surface of the continents; that the sea must, during some period, have covered our y would then be found reduced to fragments, and continents; but, for want of sufficient documents, they assed in the greatest disorder. But, on the contrary, never went beyond the supposition that it formerly inunst of them are in so excellent a state of preservation, dated the whole surface of the globe, to a height above t they retain their sharpest angles, and most delicate the summit of the loftiest mountains, and that its waters tes; in several may even be distinguished the shining, gradually diminished, leaving bare tracts of land, which He divides these animals into genera and species, and rly substance, which invests their interior. soon afterwards became the seat of animal and vegetable enumerates forty.nine which belong to species entirely unlife. The researches which have given rise to more pre-known in his time. Out of these forty-nine there are cise ideas upon the subject, bear hardly an earlier date than the beginning of this century. The remains of plants are also found in a fossil state, a they give rise to a similar remark. The celebrated ssieu, in a dissertation upon this subject, published at e beginning of the eighteenth century, observes that Dissertation upon the herbs, sea-shells, and other bodies, un in certain stones of Saint Chaumont, in Lyonnais. It is to a more intimate acquaintance with the nature of fossil bodies that we are indebted for the knowledge lately acquired, of the theory of the earth. From the study of You may imagine, Madam, how arduous a task it must be to determine the genera and species of animals, which do not perfectly resemble any of those now living upon the earth, and of which only imperfect remains can be procured. M. Cuvier has, however, overcome this difficulty, by means of patient observation, and of inductions so ingenious, that, if you had not forbid me to make references, I should request you to read a large work, just published by him, upon fossil animals, in order that you might be able to appreciate the 'genius of the author. You would there see that he has succeeded in classing the remains of seventy-eight quadruped animals, as well viviparous as oviparous. The results of very recent researches made by M. Cuvier, seem to prove, that the marine animals, no less than others, have been destroyed by great inundations, and that after each cataclysm, the whole race of animals has been renewed in the countries where it happened. twenty-seven whose genera have been lost, and which form seven new genera; the remaining twenty-two species are comprehended under known genera or sub-genera. Twentynine animals either belong to known species, or are yet so little understood, that their classification cannot positively be determined. Do not suppose, Madam, that this great naturalist was misled by his imagination in the inferences which he drew. His assiduous researches, aided, no doubt, by chance (for chance often plays an important part in the history of our discoveries) have been the means of procuring for us almost entire skeletons of several of these animals, all of which have completely confirmed the justness of the conjectures advanced by M. Cuvier upon bones, or even frag ments of bones. The result of the closest examination of fossil animals has been to prove incontestably the existence of layers of soil formed by fresh water, containing the remains of the animals formerly living upon the shores of the lakes, by which they were deposited, and inclosed between marine layers, one of anterior, the other of posterior formation. Each of these layers proves that the sea must have left its ancient bed dry, during a very long period, in order to permit the development of different races of animals, which were suddenly destroyed by a new revolution, after a lapse of time, more or less considerable. I repeat that the destruction of these animals, living in peace upon a soil that had been left dry, during, perhaps, some thousands of centuries, must have been occasioned by a sudden inundation of the sea; this has been rendered obvious by some very remarkable discoveries. Nothing can be more wonderful than the history of the elephant, found in the north of Lapland, near the mouth of the Lena, in the middle of a mountain of ice, and examined some time afterwards by Mr. Adams, an English naturalist. The following is the account of it, extracted by M. Cuvier from Memoirs of the Academy of Petersburgh, vol. 8, year 1815: ing; while the moral good, which the institution has effected and developed, has actuated them by an ardent and anxious desire to see extended, far more widely, all those advantages of which such an institution is capable and which it was the expressed wish of the public, and has been the constant endeavour of the committee, to promote The committee have, ever since their appointment, held a meeting on the first Monday in each month, for the is spection of the librarian's report, the audit and paymes: of donations and subscriptions, and making such orders of current expenses, the selection of books, the rectus and arrangements as from time to time seemed requisite. The regular growth and evident utility of the library have given the greatest pleasure to the committee; and the general success of the institution, which has exceeded ther most sanguine expectations, in every respect but in the amount of annual subscriptions, may be judged of from the following comparison: more than thirty pounds weight of fur and hair were I must, however, remark, that it cannot positively be I shall return to this subject, and at present shall merely observe, that certainly it was not as cold then as it is in our days; and that the preservation of the elephant proves also, that the climate changed in that part of the world, suddenly enough to permit the animal to be surrounded by the ice, in less time than would have been necessary to reduce its flesh to a state of putrefaction. I will, if you desire it, in one of my future letters, describe to you the most remarkable fossil animals, and the characteristics which distinguish them from those of the same species now living amongst us. This is not the only striking proof that can be adduced, how sudden were some of the revolutions of the globe. There is, I believe, at Washington, the skeleton of a fossil rhinoceros, found, in 1771, on the shores of the Vilhoni, "In 1799, a Tongusian fisherman observed upon the at the depth of some feet, and in so excellent a state of shores of the Frozen Ocean, near the mouth of the Lena, preservation that it retains even the flesh and skin. and surrounded by flakes of ice, a huge shapeless mass; Perhaps, Madam, when you read the account of these but he could not discern what it was. The year after, a wonderful discoveries, you will be inclined to think, that larger part of it was disencumbered from the ice, and naturalists may have mistaken for antediluvian animals, towards the end of the following summer, the whole side the remains of those which were in existence only a few of the animal and one of the tusks distinctly appeared. centuries ago. Formerly, indeed, they were liable to erFive years afterwards, the ice having melted more sud-rors of this kind; but this is now no longer possible. The denly than usual, this enormous mass was thrown upon species found in a fossil state possess certain characteristics the coast, upon a bank of sand. In the month of March, which entirely distinguish them from those now living 1804, the fisherman carried away the tusks, and sold them and the study of these characteristics has, by the skill and for fifty rubles. Upon this occasion, a rough drawing was perseverance of our naturalists, been so much advanced, made of the animal, of which I have a copy, given to me that any person, sufficiently acquainted with the subject, by M. Blumenbach. Two years later, and in the seventh may easily recognise them. year after the discovery was made, Mr. Adams, a member of the Academy of Petersburgh, and now a Professor at Moscow, who was travelling with the Count Galowskin, on his embassy to China, having been informed at Jakutsk of the existence of these remains, repaired to the spot where they lay. He there found the animal already much mutilated. The Jakouts of the neighbourhood had cut up the flesh for their dogs; a large part of it also had been devoured by wild beasts; nevertheless, the skeleton was still entire, except one of the fore feet. The spine of the back, one shoulder-blade, the basin, and the remains of the three extremities, were still united by the ligaments, und by a portion of the skin.. The shoulder-blade want. ing was found at a short distance from the animal. The head was covered with a dry skin; one of the ears was perfect, and was ornamented with a tuft of hair. The pupil of the eye was still perceptible; the brain was in the cranium, although dried up; part of the under lip had been gnawed away, and as the upper lip was entirely destroyed, the molar teeth were laid bare. The neck was ornamented by a long mane; the skin was covered with black hair, and with a coat of reddish fur or wool. The animal was, in this mutilated' state, so heavy, that ten persons could hardly remove it. According to Mr. Adams, The Investigator. 1800. When it is considered that above one-half of th ciety who could not furnish themselves with food ter volumes are in constant circulation, amongst a class of mind," the utility of the institution will appear at cry undoubted and extensive; and it must not be omitt state, as highly creditable to the readers, that these bosh which men of the best experience would pronouns la the most useful, are in such demand, that they are ever rest upon the shelves; and it is an extraordswor cumstance, that, to the knowledge of the libraria, single volume has been lost by the readers. Henda a picture for the philanthropist! Eight hundred d rising youth, the future tradesmen and operatives c town, who, in the absence of amusement at home, wh be tempted to spend their evenings in the streets, of loose company, where they might not only be drawn distress but into disgrace, are here not only furnished. the means, but are actually enjoying the means, of re ing their own firesides the best places of resort, and once saving their health, their money, and their chara and of improving their minds, by studying the pas illustrious philosophers, moralists, historians, tran and mechanics: thus qualifying themselves to become a telligent and respectable members of society. Th is the effect of the institution, every day's experience dantly testifies. The behaviour of the young men orderly and respectful; and their improvement in m and deportment, since they became readers, is very ev Their cagerness for information is evinced, by the larity with which they change their books, and description of the books which they ask for. The p and other relations of the readers frequently expres gratitude for the advantages derived from the which, in many cases, have made most agreeab in the domestic conduct of the young men, who read aloud interesting portions of the books they a ing, by which means they very greatly extend de may of the institution. The donations of books to the library, duri ments, and other speculative subjects, excluding Party ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LIVERPOOL APPRENTICES AND MECHANICS' LIBRARY, that, very frequently, for the want of duplicate Read at the General Meeting of the Subscribers, Feb. 15, 1825. The committee, who, for twelve months past, have had the management of the Liverpool Mechanics and Apprentices' Library, respectfully beg leave to lay before the stemme of those views and feelings with which their annual meeting a brief cutline of their proceedings, and a experience, during that period, has inspired them. That experience, they are happy to state, has rendered the performance of their duties not only easy, but highly gratify. The secretary and the libra harrassed with applications for admission by number young men, sometimes ten or twenty in a day; bes stock of books is by no means equal to the varied des even of the present readers; and it is matter d books, readers are obliged to change their course of s and to be supplied with books, which, however g themselves, may not happen to be within the range taste and inclination at the time. The committee opinion that the number of readers would soon s three or four thousand, if there were books suf the necessity for furthering the present good work, their perusal; and they, therefore, urge upon the mediate and liberal donations of books. To thes tants of Liverpool and its neighbourhood, who have yet favoured the institution with books, they won that there are very few families who will not find, on exa-bryo blooms are almost visibly struggling towards light and life, beneath their rough, unpromising outer coats- The donations during the past year have also been liberal; they have amounted to £157 4s. Od. and have effected an important change in the funds of the institution, as stated above: but the annual subscriptions are, as yet, ex-growing out of endless change. tremely deficient. When, however, the committee reflect on the proverbial liberality of the inhabitants of Liverpool, and see that similar institutions in other towns are most generously supported, they must rather attribute the defiiency to the want of proper means being adopted to proure such support than to any exception to the general rule on the part of their townsmen. They now, however, appeal most earnestly to the public for subscriptions. Halfa-guinea per annum qualifies the subscriber to admit mechanics and apprentices to the advantages of the library; and, as a very large sum is not required to maintain the institution, they cannot doubt that the requisite angmentation of the funds will be furnished by an enlightened ublic. The melody of birds now gradually swells upon the ear. The throstle, second only to the nightingale in song, charms us with the sweetness and variety of its lays. The linnet and the goldfinch join the general concert in this month, and the golden-crowned wren begins its song. The lark, also, must not be forgotten: To those who have not yet favoured the institution either rith money or books, the committee would suggest two hings:-First, a perusal of Mr. Brougham's most able nd useful pamphlet, on popular education, just pubished; and, secondly, a visit to the library of this instituion, during one of the hours when the books are in a ourse of delivery, where they will see the description of ersons reading, and of books read; and will be enabled judge accurately of the great good which such instituoras cannot fail to afford to the community at large. The following are the officers and committee for the asuing year: Hardman Earle, Esq. Chairman; W. Wallace Currie, Esq. Deputy Chairman; Mr. Wm. Wood, Secretary. Mr. T. B. Barclay, Mr. Thomas Binns, Mr. Joseph Eccles, Mr. Edward Martineau, Mr. M. L. Mozley,} Mr. Wm. Rushton, The Naturalist's Diary. MARCH, 1825. [From Time's Telescope.] There is a stir abroad in earth and sky. The busy clouds, now huddling, now dispersing, Seem with the windy messengers conversing. The landscape is alive; the shadows fly, Coursed o'er the uplands by the hunter breeze. The shifting lights are colour to the eye, Clothing with warmth the sober scenery, The russet corn-lands and the crisp, bare trees. dotting scarce perceptible, thrown out la tints of livelier brown, on hedge and bough, Gives mystic signs A spirit is about, Felt through all Nature's veins; and all things now, The gentle lark, weary of rest, From his moist cabinet mounts up on high, Who doth the world so gloriously behold, 'Didst thou ever see a lark in a cage? Such is the soul in Now is the time (says the elegant writer just quoted) to How beautiful upon this verdant bank The sunshine slumbers! how the vernal trees D. M. MOIR. The winds of March, which come careering over our lds and roads and pathways, although cutting winds' the invalid, are highly beneficial, as they tend to dry up The birds, indeed, are for once in the year as busy as e damps that the thaws had let loose, and the previous the bees are always. They are getting their houses built, osts had prevented from sinking into the earth-and and seeing to their household affairs, and concluding their hey pipe to the spirit ditties,' the words of which tell family arrangements-that when the summer and the sunates of the forthcoming flowers. The general face of Na- shine are fairly come, they may have nothing to do but ure is not much changed in appearance since we left it in teach their children the last new modes of flying and singFebruary; though its internal economy has made an im-ing, and be as happy as-birds, for the rest of the year. ortant step in advance. The sap is alive in the seemingly Now, therefore, as in the last month-they have but little sleeping trunks that every where surround us, and is be- time to sing to each other; and the lark has the morning ginning to mount slowly to its destination; and the em- sky all to himself. THE SKYLARK. When day's bright banner, first unfurled, And sadly sinks to earth again. 295 Literary Gazette. About the commencement of this month, the blossoms of the yew-tree (taxus baccata) make their appearance, reminding us that in the midst of life we are in death;' and that even in our gayest moments, and at the opening of our brightest prospects, we should ever bear in mind that He who gave us our being requires us to surrender it at His pleasure. TO THE YEW-TREE. When Fortune smiled, and Nature's charms were now, I loved to see the apple's painted flower, LEYDEN. Each succeeding week pours forth fresh beauties from the lap of Flora, and furnishes the botanist with new sources of delight. Golden tufts of crocuses, expanding their corollas to receive the genial warmth of the sun, interspersed with pink and blue hepaticas, and the garden daisy, with its little tufts of crimson velvet, united with the blossoms of last month, greatly ornament our flower borders. Yet, all beneath th' unrivalled rose, Yet green the juicy hawthorn grows, [To be concluded in our next.] The Housewife. "Housekeeping and husbandry, if it be good, Syrup for Hoarseness.-Of syrup of squills, an ounce; of syrup of saffron, two ounces; of lemon-juice a tablespoonful: mix, and take a teaspoonful occasionally.Med. Adviser. German Polish.-Melt an ounce of black rosin, and a quarter of a pound of yellow wax, in an earthen pipkin, and pour in, by degrees, two ounces of spirits of turpentine: when the whole is well incorporated, put it in an earthen jar, and keep it close covered for use. When you use it, spread a little of it on the furniture with a woollen cloth, and rub it well in. In a few days the polish will be as hard and as bright as varnish.-Mechanic's Magazine. Coffee. The great difference between the English and the Continental mode of making coffee is this:-foreigners always burn the berry before they make it into coffee, while in England the berry is frequently bought ready burnt, subsequent to which progress it soon loses its flavour. The following is the best mode of making coffee:-After grinding the berry to a fine powder, mix it with the shell and white of an egg, then put it into a coffee-pot, fill this vessel with boiling water, and then boil your coffee till it becomes fine, which will be in less than ten minutes. The Italians seldom take milk, in any shape, but the Germans always add boiling cream to their coffee. Poetry. FRIENDSHIP. Friendship, a name! 'tis even so, A flattering dream, a fleeting shade, A morn of generous sunshine bright, Of friendship, that when clouds deform, And, Friendship, since I've woo'd thee long, Yet found thee but in Poet's song: A far-off star, too bright and rare To deign illume this nether sphere; How sad, it little boots to tell; No! fare thee well! in worlds unknown SUNSET ON THE MERSEY. Afar behind yon dark grey beacon hill,† O! darkness, veil these signs of coming war! - The symbols all of fierce invading bands, Bursting from northern wilds on southern lands. The deluge rolls along, of blood-red light, The south is all one mass of darkling flame, The north is lost in clouds of darkest night, Contest and battle rend th' etherial frame; And clouds, like banner'd hosts,'slow-winding creep Along the western ridges of the deep. G. The lovely star of evening hastes away, So beautifully bright, so brightly fair, It shrinks afraid, and shuns the impending fray, Foretold by vengeful signs, and heaven's red glare: And as a guardian angel flies his care, So, from this fated land, yon evening star. Thus, ere Jerusalem's great temple fell, And Roman eagles waved their horrid wings In dreadful peals resounded, "Leave this place!" T'ingulph that splendour and unreal day: With mighty energy his waters sweep, Leaves not an object to engage the eye, Save where on Mersey's stream tall shadows roam, And stretch'd from shore to shore gigantic lie:They are the awful genii of the deep, Holding their revels here, whilst mortals sleep! Y. Z. In winter the sun often sets behind the western banks About three of the Mersey with uncommon splendour. weeks or a month since a scene, very like the one which is attempted to be described in these lines, actually occurred. It was a remarkably still evening, and for more than an hour after the sun was sunk from view the sky was covered with a glorious light, forming with the clouds a variety of forms and shapes. † Bidston hill, with its signals and poles. TO THE EDITOR. SIR,-Your idea that you have before seen a translation of Schiller's ballad of the Glove, is very probably cor. rect. Zelter, director of an academy of music in Berlin, wrote a spirited bass air to the original words; and the gentleman who re-published it in England (C. F. Hasse) procured an almost verbal translation from a Mr. Henry Steinhauer, which I will transcribe for your satisfaction. You will perceive that it has no pretentions to rhythmical merit; though, had not Mr. S. been trammeled by the musical necessity of a close version, he was fully capable of giving it in an elegant English dress. Your correspondent Our, may not have seen this air, as it obtained little celebrity, far less indeed than it deserved. Yours, &c. Fairfield, near Manchester. King Francis the combat awaited, Before the lion's den seated In royal pride: Around him the nobles were placed, Aloft the galleries were graced With ladies on either side. By Francis the word was spoken,` The gates ope wide at the token, And behold on the midst of the sand A lion stand. A silent glance, he cast askance, T. H. S. Then yawning loudly, his mane he shakes proudly, A second gate. Forward springs a tiger bold, Ere the portals well unfold: When the lion he espied, loud he cried, High whirl'd his tail o'er his black spotted side, And gaping wide, his tongue extended. Lie down by the lion's side. And there leap from two doors with agile spring Then the lion with a roar rises up, they fight no more, A glove from a lady fair Sudden alight! Then Kunigund burning with scoffing air, IMPROMPTU, BY ONE OF THE PROJECTORS OF THE MANCHESTER SHIP CANÁLO The sun we'll place on some high hill, The dial of a clock we'll make, And clench it t'other side the moon, We'll tow it through the starry lawn! INTENDED TO BE PLAYED AS A CODA TO THE AIR BY BEEHOVEN, PAGE 289. The friend to whom we are indebted for the following Air, informs us that it is a favourite dance in Switzerland amongst the peasants, and is known by the name of a Ländler. It is surmised, however, as we observed in our last, that it is the composition of Beethoven. Scientific Records. in the Kaleidoscope, we need not repeat them; but refer the reader to our publication of Dec. 28, page 215. The paraComprehending Notices of new Discoveries or Improve-graphs are those marked (a) (b) (c), also eight lines of ments in Science or Art; including, occasionally, sin- the subsequent paragraph, beginning with the words gular Medical Cases; Astronomical, Mechanical, Phi- Now it would be at all times easy,' to the words "or losophical, Botanical, Meteorological, and Mineralogical arms of the sea."] Phenomena, or singular Facts in Natural History; Vegetation, &c.; Antiquities, &c.; List of Patents; to be continued in a series through the Volume.] XPERIMENTS ON FRICTION-RAIL-ROADS. The following article, relating to the discussion into hich we have entered at such length, is copied from the Lanchester Guardian, the proprietor of which has ligingly furnished us with the accompanying engraving. Now we are perfectly satisfied, both by the experiments of Vince and Coulomb, and those more recent and more conclusive experiments, to which we have already alluded, that the rule laid down here is correct; but the writer ought to have guarded against the misconception to which his last paragraph is liable. When he says that a high velocity would cost almost as little as a low one, he should have said that it would cost as little per mile,-or as little over any given space: for it cannot be his meaning, that a carriage can be kept moving for an hour, or for any given time, at a high velocity, with as little expenditure of power, as at a low velocity. Yet this he has been generally understood to mean, and a great deal has been written and said with a view of proving that he was mistaken; when, in fact, he was only misunderstood. In a subsequent article, however, the writer appears to have, in some degree, fallen into the error in which he has led other persons. He says Under ordinary circumstances we should have felt it cessary to apologize to our readers for occupying a conlerable space with a disquisition on a matter purely scitific, and, to many persons, necessarily dry and unin=esting; but the numerous and extensive projects lately "Every body knows that the rate of stage coach travelling urted, for constructing rail-ways in different parts of the in this country has increased within the last twenty-five years, ngdom, have directed a large share of public attention from six or seven miles an hour to eight or nine, and this, too, the subject; and it has become more generally inte- before roads were M'Adamized, and with much less injury to ting from the publication, in a newspaper of a high the horses than was anticipated. Supposing that a coach entific character, (the Scotsman) of a series of papers horse could run fourteen miles unloaded, with the same musich have been very gen erally read and commented upon, cular exertion which carries forward the stage coach at at, as it appears to us, by no means universally under-eight or nine miles, then Professor Leslie's formula becomes d. The object of those papers was, in a great mea- 4 (14-). Each horse would, of course, draw with a force e, to show the practicability of transporting commodi- of 48 pounds at six miles, and of 27 pounds at eight miles an upon rail roads, at a very considerable speed; and hour. But if the friction increased in the ratio of the velocity, ith some fallacies, which we shall endeavour to point the load upon each horse would increase from 48 pounds to 60 they contain a great deal of valuable information on pounds, when the speed increased from six to eight miles an relative merits of highways, canals, and rail-roads. hour; and as the horse exerting the same strength, would ie principal point, however, and the one to which we only pull with a force of 27 pounds, he would thus have more all confine our observations, is an enunciation of the than double work to do which is plainly impossible. But ws which regulate the friction of rolling and sliding admit that the friction is equal in equal times; then, since chies, as deduced from the experiments of Vince and the time is diminished one-fourth, by increasing the speed alomb. With a view to the illustration of this part of from six to eight miles an hour, the horses have actually onesubject, some very important and conclusive experi- fourth less to do; the load upon each is reduced from 48 ents have recently been made in this town, to which we pounds to 36, and the horse would have to increase its exertion all by and by have occasion to refer at some length; only one-third-that is, from 27 pounds to 36. The facts, we before doing so, we must make a few observations on believe, will be found strictly consistent with this hypothesis, rule laid down in the Scotsman, and the misconceptions and decidedly at variance with the other. However strange ich appear to have prevailed respecting it, both in that it may sound, then, to common observers, it is practically anal and in other quarters. true, that a smaller absolute amount of force will drag a coach over the same space in three hours than in four, and in one hour than in two.” After comparing the resistance experienced by a boat ving through the water, with the friction which retards e progress of a waggon on a rail-road, and stating that ey are governed by different laws, the Scotsman notices e conclusions established by the experiments of Vince ad Coulomb; the most important of which is, that the iction of rolling and sliding bodies is THE SAME FOR LL VELOCITIES. The writer then observes [As the passages here introduced have been already given This paragraph seems to us to contain a very obvious fallacy. If the speed be increased from six miles an hour to eight, the horses have by no means one-fourth less work to do, supposing the friction a constant quantity, and the traction consequently the same. It is true that they exert this power for a shorter time, but it is over the same distance. Supposing the power of traction necessary to over come the friction is 100 pounds, then that power must be exerted over every yard of the distance, whether the carriage moves at six or at eight miles an hour; and it is by the distance, not the time, that the power must be measured. That this must be the case, will be obvious if the experiment be put in another shape. Suppose a perfectly horizontal rail-way, a mile long, with a perpendicular descent of a mile at one end of it, as represented on the following diagram. Α B C Suppose a waggon placed on this rail-way at A, attached to a rope passing over a pulley at B, and loaded at that point with a weight exactly sufficient to overcome the friction, then, if the resistance of the air is nothing and the rope be without weight, it follows, from the rule laid down, that if the waggon is set in motion at any given speed, it will continue to move at that rate until it reaches the point B, and the weight falls to C. But whether the waggon passes over the rail-way in an hour or in three minutes, it is obvious that the same weight will descend through the same space, and that, consequently, the same amount of power will be expended. It is, perhaps, necessary to observe here, that if the weight is only just sufficient to overcome the friction, there will (as is proved by the experiments of Mr. Vince) be no acceleration of motion on the principle of falling bodies. However, though a carriage cannot, as we think we have shown, be moved ten miles in one hour, with a smaller expenditure of power than in two, it is very interesting to know that it can be moved with the same expenditure (excepting always the additional resistance of the air.) In many cases despatch is of so much consequence, that the elucidation and application of this rule will probably lead to very important results. Many persons, however, are very sceptical on this subject, and contend that the experiments of Vince and Coulomb do not authorize any such conclusions as have been drawn from them. It has been asked, if the same constant force will move a carriage as well at a high as at a low velocity,-why we do not see something like this in practice?-why a carriage moved by a steam-engine, instead of acquiring, as it proceeds, a high degree of velocity, moves on at one uniform rate after it has overcome the vis inertia at the commencement of its journey? We think the reason is very obvious. A locomotive steamengine does not exert the same constant force on the peripheries of the wheels of the carriage, when it moves at different velocities. For instance, suppose the piston of an engine to move 220 feet in a minute, and to impel the peripheries of the travelling wheels at a velocity of two miles, and with a force just sufficient to overcome the friction,-how can the speed be augmented without increasing the power of the engine? If the diameter of |