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warin."

Ptinus Fatidicus, a male and a female, which he kept | overlooked. At the foot of these possessives relative, as alive in a box for several months; and could bring one of he heads the list, is added-" When the pronoun you them to beat whenever he pleased, by imitating its beating." follows the verb, it is rendered in Spanish by a vmd, The sound which the Death-watch makes is "not owing to abbreviation of usted." What has you to do with posthe voice of the insect, but to its beating on any hard sub-sessives relative? You is a personal pronoun, and vmd stance with the shield, or forepart of its head; and in old is as frequently used before as after verbs in Spanish. houses, where the insects are numerous, may be heard at Vmd, strictly speaking, is not you, because it governs the almost every hour of the day, especially if the weather be verb in the third person singular, and the nearest idea I can give of it is, that it answers to the Irish expression "your honour," before a verb; as, your honour is very good.' Vmd es muy bueno. Vmd in Spanish is a more respectful or polite way of speaking than tu, thou, or vosotros, you, which are used in addressing inferiors, equals, or relatives; particularly tu, as in French. The proper mode of using these in Spanish would be difficult to an Englishman, unless he derived more explanation on the subject than Mr. Fernandez's Table gives, for even that little would lead him wrong.

CRITIQUE ON MR. FERNANDEZ'S "SYNOPTIC TABLE
OF THE SPANISH GRAMMAR, AND OF ALL THE DIF-
FICULTIES WHICH THE SPANISH LANGUAGE PRE-
SENTS. CONTINUED.]

NO. III.

TO THE EDITOR.

SIR,-I now come to exercise my optics on section

It had begun at half-past four: it was now five, and
erably light. The ticking commenced again. I was
kneeling, and listening towards the floor of the apart-
ent. In this posture I ascertained clearly that the noise
oceeded from somewhere higher than my head, and it
peared to me to come in through the window. This
s about two yards off the place where I sat when I first
rd it. I therefore got gently up, crept slowly to the
idow, and placed my head near it. The sound was
ich more distinct; I seemed closer to it; and, for the
st time, I could now perceive a difference between it
d the beating of a watch. In the centre of each mys-
ious, separate tick, there was a sort of shrill quaver,
y rapid, but very perceptible. It was not the smart,
stic, sonorous tick of a watch, though, to an indifferent,
istant, or timid observer, precisely the same.
I ex-
ned minutely every part of the casement, and at
gth observed a small chink between the wall and the
ndow-sill. I put my ear to it,was the very fissure
10. "OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS." -
ience issued the sound I had so long been in search of! This learned grammarian states "that the absolute
was just upon it; so I now took out my stop-watch possessive are always followed by the substantive, and
ain, drew my chair to the spot, and sat down to count accord with him in gender, number, and case. They are
number of these ominous ticks in a minute. In this all declined with the indefinite article. The pronouns,
e of the business a new and unexpected result sur- possessive relative, are those which, from the ralationship
ed me. I had placed my watch very near the chink in in which they stand with the object it, has just been
wall, and whether the unseen object of my pursuit were spoken of, bring it to our mind; these, instead of being
sed with jealousy, or cheered with company, I pretend followed by them, take their places, and follow the same
to know; but so it was; the strokes were more fre- gender, number, and case. They are declined with the
ent and much longer continued. There was occasion- definite article." If the learned gentleman would conde-
a flagging in the middle of them; then again a quick scend to translate this sentence into English, it might
as if emulous to out-rival its neighbour; and again become intelligible; for, in its present form, the pronouns
grew gradually fainter and fainter to the end. From are jumbled together in such a manner, that I am not in
it 16 they rose to 20, then up to 34 times without inter-possession of faculties sufficiently clear to decipher the
ion in 12 seconds. From 34 they increased to 64 times, meaning of these possessives absolute and relative as he
ch were accomplished in 30 seconds. From 64 they describes them. He states that the former are to be de-
on to 480, which were completed in 1 minute and 40 clined with the indefinite and the latter with the definite
nds. And, finally, they ascended as high as 600, when article. He has favoured us with his definition of the
t my computation of time, and they ceased altogether. definite articles "de, of or from, and à, to," stating in
was at half-past five o'clock.
the sixth section that " the other persons have no article."
Jaylight was now fast advancing. I waited patiently What persons or who does the author allude to that have
eral minutes, but all was hushed, so I took out my no articles? This is beyond the grasp of my finite com-
fe to examine the interstice in the wall, cleared it of prehension. If he allude to he, him, her, they, and them,
surrounding paper, and found the opening little more to whom the author seems kindly to grant an article, why
1 wide enough to admit the blade. I scraped about it should I or thou, she or you, or we be excluded from the
some time, without discovering any thing, and at last boon? And others may ask-" What is the reason that
e up the search, wondering what sort of an animal it no article is assigned to thee, or me, or to us? is he not
Very soon afterwards I happened to turn my eyes a selfish man ?" If the objection can be raised against
n that way, and I saw a small, compact, brown- nominatives, there can be none against the genitives,
ured insect scampering from the spot, as fast as six datives, and ablatives, to which these prepositions (erro-
e-legs could carry it. It had two tremulous feelers in neously called articles) may be prefixed. Having premised
it, to explore its way. I secured the harmless stranger, thus much concerning the excellence of this newly-disco-
lodged him in a little box, with a supply of sugar and vered definite article, let us next inquire after the indefinite
rmaceti. Before I had an opportunity of hearing him with which the author informs us the absolute possessives
eat his strokes, the box got accidentally crushed, and, are to be declined. As this is the first time he mentions
n sorry to say, the poor little creature was stifled; but such an article, he leaves us completely in the dark to
eep his dead body by me, and mean to take him to guess the definition he attaches to it; he has wisely ab-
erpool, for the inspection of such as are curious in the stained from saying any thing about it, and, if he had
wledge of insects. It is little more than the size of a said less of the definite, he would have fared the better.
ge flea, and very much resembles those insects which
found in West India sugar, and which we sometimes
> swimming on a cup of tea.

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?. S. On mentioning the circumstances related above,
two well informed young females, in Manchester, they
ught me "Taylor's Anecdotes of remarkable Insects."
this it appears, the insect which I have, is not the Pli.
* Falidicus, or "real Death-watch of the vulgar, em-
atically so called." This makes a noise like "that
ich may be made by beating moderately hard with
il on a table" (and which beating" is no other than the
Il or signal by which the male and female are led to each
ez, analagous to the call of birds"), but the other be-
8 to a totally different order, and is the Termes Pul-
ium of Linnæus." "Dr. Durham had two of the

a

"DECLINATION OF POSSESSIVE RELATIVE
PRONOUNS."

These are introduced to our notice by remarking that
"these persons, having no other difference than the article,
we shall only give the first of either." Here is confusion
again; he is not now treating of personal pronouns, and
yet he writes of persons; he has divided possessives into
absolute and relative, and yet he now huddles together
conjunctive and personal, absolute and relative possessive,
without any distinction.

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"DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS."

"They are declined with the indefinite article." We have now another mention of the indefinite, which is still as indefinite as ever, seeing that his definite articles turn out to be prepositions.

“Estas, these; esas, these; aquellas, these." The first is right, the last two should be those; but this is pretty well for Mr. Fernandez, to make only two blunders in translating three words!

"RELATIVE PRONOUNS." "Some are declined with the definite article, others with the indefinite." This distinction he has, not condescended to exemplify.

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"Nonogesimo," ninetieth, should be no nonagesimo. "Unadocena," a dozen, should be separated, the una from docena.

12. "LIST OF ADJECTIVES,"

which, when joined to a substantive, loose their last vowel
For loose read lose; and for the author's information, I will
observe, that there is the same difference between them
as between desatar and perder. Examples of the rule:
"San Juan instead of Santo Juan." If my optics serve
me, san has lost the last consonant as well as the vowel,
El buen vino nunc es caro,"
and ciento does the same.
"good wine is never dear," he has nunca in the line
above, and therefore this error will be carried off to the
"Enrrique primero, Henry the
typographical debit.
First," I should write with one r instead of two; because
the rule of the Royal Spanish Academy, treating of double
consonants, states, that r should never be doubled after a
consonant; but perhaps this Tublarian scholar will in-
form us that his ipse dixit is a higher authority.
13. "OF CONJUNCTIONS."

The Tablarian has (par contumace) extablated a host of my industrious little school-fellows of this class: and, or, but, either, neither, if, nor, whether, yet, &c. have no station in his stately collection; and instead of these useful acquaintances and playmates of mine, he has dressed out some very smart Spanish conjunctions, that he brought over with him from the Continent. Allow me to introduce a few of them to your respectful notice; "Donde quiera que, in whatever place." Ha! one of his interEx.: mi, me; if my be intended, it is a possessive abso_jections I think would sound well either before or after. lute, otherwise it is a personal or conjunctive, as me, tu, "Cualquiera que, whoever may;" Fuego! Zounds!" thou; if thy be intended, it is a possessive absolute, other another of the interjections as an accompaniment. **Cuwise thou is a personal. His, her, our, your, their, are aiquiern persona que, any person who may." " Malhaya! possessives absolute, and mine, thine, his, hers, ours, the deuce!" another interjection of his. To which I will yours, theirs, are relative possessive pronouns: still he add two of my own," What spelling !” “what fine conmixes them all up like the ingredients of a plum-pudding, junctions!" without the least classification; and the neuter its is wholly

OBSERVATOR.

THE HAMILTONIAN SYSTEM.

TO THE EDITOR.

SIR,-As your correspondent, Verbeiensis, appears only to have intended to amuse your readers, he will not expect that I should enter into a serious argument with him relative to the justice of the principles on which the Ha. miltonian System is founded. The result of these principles, demonstrated in above 1500 instances in the last eighteen months, puts an end to all controversy in their correctness. A few words on each of the points on which your correspondent thinks this system vulnerable will, I hope, suffice. And, first, I have not mentioned" the superiority of being taught over the present absurd method of learning," but the superiority of being taught over the absurd and dishonest mode of ordering to learn. Was it want of sagacity, or want of candour, which prevented your correspondent from perceiving the immense differ

ence?

2ndly. The simple sounds of all languages are the same. This is correct. The reason why the German and Frenchman pronounce "dis," "dat," and "t'oder," is that they are not taught; besides, "this," "that," and "the other," are not simple but compound sounds. Cato and Cicero never saw a grammar: first, because none existed, and, secondly, because if they did exist, grammars are not the place in which they would have studied it With respect to Valerius Probus, Pausanias, Apollonius Dyscolus, and about fifty other grammarians and lexicographers, Greek and Roman, not one of these was a grammarian or lexicographer, in the sense in which these words are now used. Grammarians were then a very different set of men from those who are now called by that name; they taught elocution, correct and elegant speaking, rhetoric, philosophy-our grammarians teach nothing, and order their pupils to learn, by heart, the veriest trash.

sdly. If a word have but one meaning, and a dictionary gives it two, both equally deceive, and, with regard to the inquirer, both are false, though it be possible that one may be right. I apprehend I gave this explanation of my meaning in my lecture.

4thly. As an example of analytical translation your correspondent gives this phrase "Il y a ici un petit garçon qui a cinq pains d'orge et deux petits poissons-mais qu'est ce de cela pour tant de gens ?" which he thus Englishes, "He there has a little boy, who has five breads of barley and two little fishes; but what is this of that for so much of peoples ?" Now, Sir, if these English words were really a translation of each of the French words, and that the grammar of the phrase and idiom of the French language had been pointed out by that translation, they would, undoubtedly, be the only proper literal and analytical translation-every other would be false and wrong. But Verbeiensis demonstrates a singular ignorance of this language, an ignorance which ought surely to render him more cautious. "Il y a" are not three words, but three constituent parts of one impersonal verb, and must, therefore, be rendered, "there is," and not "he there has;" the word "pain" means bread, but 'pains," in the plural, means loaves. The phrase "Qu'est ce de cela," is not French, but nonsense: the error is not of the compositor, but of Verbeiensis, who translates nonsense by equivalent nonsense. The phrase should be Qu'est ce que cela," where the verb "est" is understood to close the sense. The phrase then is "What is that that that is;" a singular phrase, but which points out the precise and peculiar idiom of the French language, which should be the intention of every translation in the mouth of a teacher. The word "gens" means people or persons, but not "peoples." Has Verbeiensis yet to learn that "people" is plural ?-"gens" is no

66

more.

After this sample of your correspondent's French criticism, it will not be expected that I should follow him into the kitchen and the larder to examine whether the elegant technicalities of French cooks and scullions are to be rendered by corresponding technicalities into English. The argument, such as it is, was put at least in language that was approachable by the Honorary Secretary of the Metropolitan Society, who, seeing in his dictionary coup de feu, coup de pied, coup d'œil, &c. triumphantly asks Has coup but one meaning?" No more. The French have no words in their language to express a kick, a glance, a shot; they are, therefore, obliged to use a circumlocution a blow of fire, a blow of foot, a blow of eye, &c. &c. Your correspondent will apply this to his "filet,' which he translates thread," and to his "thread of

64

vinegar," of which no man ever heard but himself.Your obedient servant, JAMES HAMILTON.

LIBRARY AT THE INFIRMARY.

TO THE EDITOR.

SIR,-A few days since I had occasion to visit our new Infirmary, the arrangements of which are, doubtless, generally well adapted to promote the comfort of its unfortunate inmates. On one subject, however, permit me to make a remark. On looking into one of two of the wards, the appearance of the total absence of any thing in the which appeared completely occupied, I was struck with way either of amusement or employment, which might tend to dissipate the gloominess of the scene, or divert the attention of the patients from the objects immediately idleness, as if so many human beings had been immured around them. All was listless indifference, and complete within the walls of a prison. Surely, I thought to myself, some, at least, of these people can read, and there must be intervals of freedom from pain, when they would gladly seize on any mode of relaxation and amusement. have received, whilst lying on the bed of confinement, How many individuals can recollect the pleasure they from converse with books, to relieve the lingering hours; and how many have derived instruction on a variety of visitation, would probably never have thought on them at subjects, religious or otherwise, who, but for this afflictive all, to say nothing of the tendency that occupation of the mind must often have to promote recovery. But on no side could I perceive a book of any kind. Without interfering unnecessarily in the province of others, beg earnestly to suggest the expediency of forming within the for those of the patients who may request the use of them, Infirmary a small library, of useful and amusing books, to be placed under the care of some individual of that establishment. This is a subject on which I merely throw out a hint, leaving it to others to mature and carry into operation, only observing that my donation shall be forthcoming whenever the scheme is attempted. Nor is this of a formidable nature, when it is recollected how much is accomplished, if even a hundred well-selected volumes only are contributed, as a vast fund of instruction and amusement would be thereby provided, without being a tax on any one. A. B.

Liverpool, January, 1825.

Vive la Bagatelle.

In order to employ one part of this life in serious and important occupations, it is necessary to spend another in mere amusements." JOHN LOCKE. "There is a time to laugh and a time to weep."—Solomon. SOLUTIONS TO THE CONUNDRUMS, &c. IN OUR LAST.

RECREATION VII.

While the glass is held in one hand, nothing can be simpler than to remove it with the other hand, and drink it; and it is obvious that it is of no consequence how many persons hold the arm, while the hand in which the glass is held is at perfect liberty. This trick was once played off with great effect, by M. Vogel, the celebrated flute-player, who, upon the occasion of a concert for his benefit, announced that, after playing his concerto, he would hold a glass of wine in his left hand, and drink it off, although his arm should be held by six of the strongest men present. The curiosity to see this feat filled the house; and, after M. Vogel had concluded his concerto, he filled a glass with wine, and, holding it at arm's length, challenged six of the company to prevent him, by holding his arm, from drinking off the wine. Immediately half-a dozen gentlemen, including the mayor of the place, advanced from the boxes to the stage, and laid firmly hold of the operator's arm, straining every muscle, and looking most ludicrously grave. Vogel then, in broken English said, "Jantemen, are you all ready?"-to which they answered in the affirmative, when the operator, with great dignity, advanced his right arm with a grand sweep, until it came into contact with the glass, which he applied to his mouth, saying, with the most provoking grin, Jantemen, all your goot healths." This produced such a roar of laughter, that the mayor and his athletic companions retired with the utmost precipitancy.

RECREATION VIII.

All you have to do, in order to accomplish this wonder, after having swallowed the pieces of apple or cake, is, to take the hat fixed upon by the company, and put it upon your head; when it is obvious that all the pieces will be under one hat.

BY BATHOS. 16. He is a marjoram (mar-jorum.)

17. It is full of dove-tails.

18. He is in the habit of turning the hair (hare.) 19. Because she is a looking lass (looking glass.) 20. If our correspondent, Bathos, did not blush when he wrote this conundrum, he must, indeed, be irrecoverably gone. His solution is thus worded by himself:-A animal sometimes goes mad, and bites people, who ofte recover; but there is a plant which is MADDER, which people die (dye) although they are not bitten. * A plant used in dyeing.

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ORIGINAL CHARADES.

My first in every inn you see

My next most men pursue;
To get my whole you'll all agree.
My second is your view.

My first you'll own myself to be,
My next was never yet behind,
My third is used in husbandry,
My whole a noted work you'll find.

To Correspondents.

GRATUITOUS SUPPLEMENT TO THE KALEIDOSCOPE

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next week, present our readers with a supplement, in to bring up some arrears, and to compensate some of readers for the music and occasional advertisements duced into our columns. This supplement will enabled to introdnce several communications, including these Jerry-Lines supposed to have been written in the Ding T. H. T.'s favour, dated Fairfield, near Manchestershort letter concerning De Foe-Two pieces of 0. E.-Y. L lines to Sunset-R.'s letter, dated Newry-Quotator. LATIN VERSES AND TRANSLATIONS.-We have been faveu with a copy of original Latin verses by Aliqsts, on t Spring, which we shall insert in our next, as an exert to some of our translating correspondents. We take occasion, however, to say, that we do not wish to dev much of our publication to Latin compositions, which uninteresting to the great majority of readers of any m laneous publication.-Connected with this subject, wel inform some of our correspondents who have favour with metrical translations of the Latin lines on Winter, we have two more versions in reserve for our next suff mental number.

Dorothea Ramsbottom's letter to John Bull is prepared for t next Kaleidoscope. It is not often we can select any tha from the John Bull, unmixed with obscenity or pers ribaldry; but this whimsical letter is an exception, and thank Amicus for directing our attention to it. Ashtonian must not be offended if we decline a correspondence, which is utterly devoid of endo ninety-nine out of every hundred of our rais have received sundry hints from various parts of the

try, protesting against the continuance of the

bickerings. Let Ashtonian employ his pen upon so better than such petty skirmishes. He has talents something higher; but he ought to bestow a little care upon his hand-writing, which is equally appaling the editor and printers. We have also received the communications of 0. PM

of Glasgow-A Sonnet, by T. N. S-J. L.-Constant Bat MUSIC.-We shall, next week, publish the original March

-W. W. M.-O. P.-J. S.-Solomon Nightingale.

S. of Manchester.

ERRATUM. In a part of the impression of our last we publication, the New Conundrums were erroneously bered:-13, 14, 15, 16, 17, instead of 16, 17, 18, 19 Those of our readers who may be in possession of the ins rect copies, will please to correct the error with a pen

Printed, published, and sold, EVERY TUESDAY

E. SMITH & CO. 75, Lord-street, Liverpool.

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OR,

Literary and Scientific Mirror.

UTILE DULCI."

mis familiar Miscellany, from which religious and political matters are excluded, contains a variety of original and selected Articles; comprehending Literature, Criticism, Men and Manners, Amusement, Elegant Extracts, Poetry, Anecdotes, Biography, Meteorology, the Drama, Arts and Sciences, Wit and Satire, Fashions, Natural History, &c. &c. forming a handsome Annual Volume, with an Index and Title-page.—Its circulation renders it a most eligible medium for Literary and Fashionable Advertisements. Regular supplies are forwarded weekly to the Agents. No. 239.-VOL. V.

Natural History.

LETTERS

ON THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GLOBE.

BY M. ALEX &

La legère couche de vie, qui fleurit à la surface du globe, ne
were que des ruines.
Paris: printed, 1824.

TUESDAY, JANUARY 25. 1825.

tity of materials used. This explosion differed, however, in its nature from that which takes place in volcanic mountains. At first Emery put into the hole, iron in the metallic state, although it is well known, that a single atom of pure iron is never found in the interior of the earth: that metal is always combined with other substances, and can be procured only by means of a succession of artificial operations. Then, even if we admit, in contradiction to all that we have been taught by experience, the possible wulated expressly for the Kaleidoscope from a recent French existence of a sufficient quantity of native iron to produce volcanoes, the hypothesis of Emery does not account for the most remarkable phenomena attending eruptions. It, in fact, explains only the first eruption, and the ejection of matter occasioned by it; since, when the inflamed gas had once formed for itself a passage to the surface of the earth, the eruption would coneist only of the continued disengagement of that gas, and volcanoes would, after the first explosion, have the appearance merely of immense lamps, that would serve to light the country round, until they should become extinct.

Work.]

LETTER IV.-OF VOLCANOES.

by the short account I have already given you of the are of volcanoes, you must have been led to consider as vast apertures in the earth, through which some of the liquid burning matter, forming the internal is violently ejected and diffused over the surface of oil. This explanation of the cause of volcanic erupappears to me more satisfactory than any other that been proposed. All other hypotheses, in fact, refer tions to causes merely local, and afford no means of unting for the singular resemblance existing between mic productions, ejected in parts of the globe, at the remote distances from each other.

ome geologists, in endeavouring to assign reasons for formation of volcanoes, have been contented with suping, that the inflammable matter, inclosed in the boof the earth, took fire spontaneously; but they did reflect that the intervention of air would be necessary, der that the combustion should take place, and that impossible for the air to penetrate to the immense lis, at which the foci of volcanoes are situated. Bethis supposition is proved to be founded on entirely grounds, by the fact, that, whenever mines are accially set on fire, the conflagration does not extend beres the parts where the works are carried on, that is, bethose places, to which the air has obtained access, eans of the apertures, communicating with the surof the soil.

៩.

has been supposed that volcanoes are produced by the amation of the salifiable bases of earths. I shall however, develop the grounds upon which this supion is founded; neither shall I endeavour to refute as an attempt to do so would necessarily lead me details, which could not be understood without some wledge of the principles of chymistry.

must not, however, pass over in silence an hypothesis, th was at first received with great applause, and was, ng a long time, adopted without contradiction. We indepted for it to Emery, a celebrated natural philosowho thought he had discovered a method of making icial volcanoes. The following are the means which dopted to effect this purpose:

aving dug a hole in the earth, he deposited, at the ora of it, a quantity of sulphur, which he afterwards stened This process, which is quite similar to that formed to effect the disengagement of the hydrogen oo generally used to light the streets of Paris, asoned, first, the disengagement of a considerable quan10 that fluid; secondly, the production of a very inheat; thirdly, an explosion proportioned to the quan

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period, have covered it with a layer of ten or twelve feet in thickness. As Herculaneum was situated much nearer the volcano than Pompeia, the lava has been accumulated over it in still greater quantities; it is now covered with a bed of volcanic productions, from 70 to 100, or even 112. feet in thickness.

A knowledge of all these facts will easily make you understand, Madam, how absurd it would be to consider as the mere product of the wrecks of Vesuvius and Etna, a tract of land, much exceeding in extent the bulk of these mountains; so far, indeed, are they from being the souree whence the matter ejected from them has been derived, that they are proved to have been themselves formed by eruptions. Vesuvius was, in the time of the Romans, much less bulky than it now is; and, according to the, descriptions left us by Strabo, Dion, and Vitruvius, it appears that, in their time, the mountain now called Somma constituted the whole mass of Vesuvius; that the eruption which took place in the time of Pliny overturned the portion of the cone nearest the sea, and gave to that part of the mountain its present dimensions and form. As for Vesuvius, such as we now behold it, it is formed of the amassed matter thrown out in subsequent eruptions. A description of the crater of Vesuvius, given by Bracini, who descended into it a short time before the eruption of 1631, proves that, since that time, the mountain has undergone very considerable changes.

The production of lavas must remain quite inexplicable, if we adhere to the opinions of Emery; neither does he give any reason for the existence of those earthquakes whose effects extend to great distances. In general, every hypothesis, by which lavas are considered as the mere result of the fusion of metallic substances accidentally deposited in the interior of the mineral crust, is, on that very account, inadmissible; as fire is not communicated to Although the origin of many volcanic mountains cannot, mineral substances with the facility necessary to produce on account of their great antiquity, and for want of sufthis effect. A heat of 143° of the pyrometer (that is, a ficiently exact relations, be satisfactorily proved, there are heat capable of melting iron) may be preserved, during some, whose formation' having been more recent, is known, several years, in the same place, without affecting sur- to us with certainty. Thus, we learn from two relations rounding bodies at the distance of a few feet from it. of ocular witnesses, that Monte Nuovo was formed during How then can we conceive it possible that the fires of a violent explosion, on the 29th of September, 1538, in a volcanoes should be communicated to sufficiently great place formerly occupied by thermal springs. Flames were distances, to melt the enormous masses of lava ejected by perceived to burst forth towards one o'clock in the mornthem. Besides, I repeat, that if lavas are merely the re-ing; when these had considerably increased, the eruption sult of the fusion of mineral substances, deposited near the commenced, and continued, without interruption, during inflamed focus, why do they not differ according to the two days and two nights. These frightful phenomena nature of the soil where that focus is situated? Why do having ceased, a mountain, three miles in circumference they so exactly resemble each other, that, however dis-was distinctly seen in the valley, where the baths of minetant the volcanoes from which they proceed, however re- ral water formerly stood. Its base covered a part of those mote the periods of time when they were ejected, they can baths, and a castle, whose ruins our descendants will perno more be distinguished than as if they issued from the haps, one day, be surprised to find. This new mountain, same focus, in two consecutive eruptions. whose position is accurately described, has, till this day, preserved the name of Monte Nuovo; it is very near Monte Barbaro, which probably had a similar origin," although of anterior date. There is every reason to believe, that the island of Ischia must have arisen from the bottom of the sea, in consequence of a submarine eruption. His. tory informs us that the islands of Lipara were formed in

The quantity of matter ejected presents another difficulty not less insurmountable. Etna, Vesuvius, and many other volcanoes have thrown out, at different periods, more burning matter of every kind, in lava, cinders, and gas, than would be necessary to form their whole mass. These sub. stances cannot, therefore, have been detached from the sides of the mountains; still less from any place near the summit of the mountain, as Buffon supposed. All the land around Naples, to the distance of several leagues, has evidently been produced by different volcanic eruptions, and beds of lava are found, even below the level of the sea. The pavement of the streets of Pompeia was formed of this matter; of which, also, a very thick layer is found under the foundations of that town. This proves, beyond a doubt, that there were eruptions of Vesuvius anterior to that of 79. The volcanic matter amassed upon the town, by eruptions that have taken place since that

• The crater was five miles in circumference, and about a

thousand paces in depth. Its sides were covered with shrubs, and there was at the bottom of it a plain, where cattle were the middle of the plain there was a narrow winding path, grazing; the woody parts were frequented by wild boars. In about a mile in length, descending into another plain, more spacious than the former, and covered with ashes. In this there were three small ponds, placed in the form of a triangles one, towards the east, was filled with warm water, extremely bitter and corrosive; another, towards the west, with water more salt than that of the sea; the third contained warm water, which had no peculiar taste.

the same manner. In 1707 a new island appeared in the The situation of about a hundred burning volcanoes is
Archipelago. These facts afford a surprising confirmation certainly known; we may reasonably suppose that the
of the details given us by Strabo, Pliny, Justin, and other number of those whose position is not yet determined is
authors, respecting the formation of several islands in the hardly less considerable. At least, half the volcanoes with
Archipelago, anciently called the Cyclades, which were which we are acquainted are found upon the islands of
also raised from the bottom of the sea. According to the ocean, and most of those which compose the other half
Pliny, in the fourth year of the 135th Olympiad, 237 years are situated upon the sea-shore, or at a short distance from
before the time of Jesus Christ, the islands of Tera (now the coast. This circumstance has always been remarked
called Santorini) and of Theresia, were formed by a sub-by naturalists, and considerable importance has, at all
marine explosion; and 130 years later, the Island of Hiera times, been attached to it: it cannot, however, be ac-
(now known by the name of the Great Kammeni) first counted for by any satisfactory reason. It is true, that,
made its appearance.
in several hypotheses, much has been said respecting the
communications supposed to exist between the sea and
volcanic foci, but it is not easy to explain in what manner
they are connected. Many volcanoes are situated at more
than forty leagues' distance from the sea; what means of
communication can be supposed to have so great an extent?
Every circumstance tends to prove, as I shall shortly have
occasion to show, that the filtrations of the sea do not pene-
trate far into the land, and that the accounts given of them
have been much exaggerated.

The extinct volcanoes, of which, as it has been already observed, numerous traces are found in all countries, far from having been less formidable than those at present in a state of activity, appear, in general, to have discharged a still greater quantity of matter. The most extensive traces of these eruptions in France, are those found in le Vivarais and le Velay.

Faujas has discovered a tract of volcanic soil, nearly
thirty leagues in length, and four in breadth (upon an
average) which gives a surface of 104 square leagues.
I have so much enlarged upon the general causes of the
Supposing this land to be only 60 feet in depth, the mass production of volcanoes, that I find myself obliged to re-
composing it would be too considerable to have been pro-fer you to my next letter for the few details I have yet to
duced by the fusion of the internal part of any of the add, respecting some of the particular phenomena to
neighbouring mountains.
which they are subject.

It was, during some time, feared that the safety of many parts of Paris was endangered by the small cavities under the foundations of that city, occasioned by digging out stone for building; if, then, we suppose that the enormous masses of matter, thrown out by volcanic eruptions in Italy, and many parts of France, constituted part of the mineral crust, how shall we be able to account for the fact, that the immense cavities, now necessarily existing under the soil, in consequence of the removal of so large a portion of it, have never produced any accident.

Does not this consideration, joined with all those that I have before suggested to you, seem to confirm the opinion, that the internal mass of the earth is the origin of volcanic matter? the enormous quantity ejected no longer appears astonishing; it becomes, indeed, almost imperceptible, when we compare it with the immense mass

whence it has been derived.

Although the hypothesis we have admitted, elucidates this difficulty, although it so well explains the existence of earthquakes, whose effects extend to considerable distances, the identity of the composition of lavas, from whatever volcanoes they proceed, their resemblance to the most ancient minerals of the primitive soil, and their state of incandescence; although it accounts for the heat of mineral springs, and although, finally, it is confirmed by all the reasons we have to believe the ancient state of fluidity of the globe, truth compels me to confess that it does not explain, with equal facility, the considerable development of gaseous substances, which accompany and follow all eruptions, and which cannot but be the result of the decomposition of the watery and earthy parts of the soil of volcanic mountains. But this reason is not sufficient to induce us to reject an hypothesis so well established by the concurrence of all other circumstances. No other than this affords any satisfactory answer to the inquiries suggested by the consideration of the prodigious force necessary to raise the lava from the foci of volcanoes to the summit of the mountain. In the island of Teneriffe, the crater of the volcano is elevated 6100 metres above the ocean; supposing the focus to be situated at no greater depth than the bottom of the sea, there must be a force equal to the pressure of 1500 atmospheres to raise the lava to the surface of the earth. Now, as the atmosphere exercises upon us a pressure equal to that produced by a column of 32 feet of water, it is evident that the impelling force existing within the focus of the volcano of Teneriffe, must be capable of raising a mass of water of 48,000 feet, or of three or four leagues in elevation, that is to say, a force far exceeding any that can be supposed to proceed from the mineral crust.

Political Frenemy,

ON MERCANTILE EDUCATION AND PRINCIPLES.
(FROM THE GERMAN OF T. L. EWALD, BY L. MAN, OF LIVERPOOL.)
(Translated expressly for the Kaleidoscope.)
“There are not more useful members in a commonwealth
than merchants.-Addison.

[Continued from our last.]

such society as will be most conducive to his improvement in other respects; although it must admitted, that the not yet so often the case as it ought to be.

The principals of great houses generally keep the. selves at too great a distance from their clerks; and, wh the exception of a few young gentlemen, whose prospects are decidedly favourable, mercantile assistants are selden treated with the familiarity of friendship by their e ployers, and the latter scarcely ever admit them to their circles. This appears to me to be mistaken policy; for, how is it likely, that men will take much interest in the welfare of those who, evidently, care nothing about them, and by whom they feel themselves treated as beings of an inferior cast: they may, indeed, fulfil their duty, in as far as their own fate depends upon its performance; tur they cannot possibly act with that warm-heaters, wincit a personal attachment alone inspires. I know that under existing circumstances, the manners of some of the young men are not sufficiently polished for the higher classes but this is only a consequence of the neglect which they suffer: if they were more frequently looked upon as mete bers of the family, their sentiments and their arsers would soon be in unison with those of their instuces

I have known well-disposed and clever young man would not have disgraced any society, and whose P tions would certainly have led them to the best, if my had but been able to get introductions, but who, for want of opportunity or friendly aid, yielded to allurements of s worse description, and marred their fortunes for ever. St duced by bad company, they took to gaming and driting, spent their own substance, so long as they had either an or credit, and, finally, made free with whatever therae lay their hands on. Others took to novel-readi relish for serious occupations, whereas they would fantastic contrivances, to such a degree that they bably have become valuable members of society, de energies had been properly directed and judiciously

A house of moderate compass will be found more ad-couraged.
vantageous to apprentices than a first-rate concern. Where
the affairs are not so very extensive, the master is in more
immediate connexion with his young men, and can better
overlook them; they are not so much left to themselves,
see more real business, and interest themselves more in it;
they endeaveur to obtain their employer's confidence, and
they are more likely to succeed with one who is able to
appreciate their good dispositions, by the daily intercourse
in which he stands with them. It is also probable, that
their general habits will be more regular, when they know
that their superior is likely to take notice of the manner
in which they conduct themselves; and this is of great
importance at an age of which every spare hour ought to
be employed to a useful purpose. The studies, which
have been begun at school, should not be neglected; and
even the hours of recreation should be spent in a rational
manner. Where there is an inclination for music, or
where a beginning has already been made in its study, it
ought to be cultivated; for it will not only assist in pass-
ing time agreeably, but a moderate proficiency in that ac-
complishment will often serve as an introduction to socie-
ties, which may have a most beneficial influence on the
manners, and even on the prospects of a young man.
After having spent a few years in a well-directed ap-
prenticeship, the youth may derive much greater advan-
tage from his being placed in a larger establishment, than
he could have hoped for, if he had been engaged in it
from the beginning: he is then much more likely to be
trusted with matters of importance, and he will not treat
them in a careless manner, after being once accustomed to
take an interest in what passes through his hands; he will
take pleasure in pactising on a large scale, what he has
thoroughly learned on a small one; and if he should be
destined to be once himself the director of an extensive
concern, he will find the necessary opportunities to acquire
that quick discernment and that cool determination, which
contribute so much to the success of great enterprises: he
will also have the further advantage of moving at once in

.

The cold indifference which is shown towards assistants is also often the cause of their estab themselves much sooner, than they would think of c if less haughtiness were manifested towards them. Th wish for independence is, indeed, natural to the b breast, but it must become considerably more through the desire of escaping from that kind of quadtine and restriction of intercourse, under which thuet le bour who have no establishments of their own. Yea always fond of indulging in hopes of easy success, flattering dreams of superior knowledge and a which need not the maturity of age. The late was introduced a boldness of speculation which disdaras common rules of precaution, because it has ofte favoured by circumstances which set experience at de and upon which no human being could have calcu Hereby trade is often converted into a mere lottery, offers the same chance to every one who has sources to risk, and who is willing to do a f merly, young men endeavoured to enter comes were already established; and they and their quired carefully about the solidity and the prob fits of the party whom they intended to join; the never have thought of engaging in a business with they were not already acquainted, or in which the be not previously worked themselves. But now-a-dayprecautions seem to be useless: people have now to do but just to speculate; and that is easy enough. of no consequence whether they do or do not know t the goods, houses, places, and circumstances, by me of which the affairs are to be carried on. If they ceed, the speculation was a good one; and, if not, all owing to misfortune. Hence the many failures, F are often the more unexpected as they impart the tins t of there having been such an establishment: some ti only get into notice by their being found upon the 2 bankrupts. This is not as it ought to be; for eve perienced merchant knows that nothing is more d

of attainment than the knowledge which well-combined speculations require; and it is the very height of presumption when a beginner runs risks of which he cannot even form a conception: success itself can scarcely justify such imprudent enterprises, whilst the reverse will add the loss of friends and reputation to the sacrifice of property which has been incurred.

It would be useless to fix the age at which merchants ought to establish themselves; for much depends upon circumstances, and some men require less time to develope their faculties than others. Yet, generally speaking, they should not be much younger than thirty years when they settle in business. Youth is naturally enterprising and improvident; and I am personally acquainted with reduced merchants, who are convinced that their misfortunes were chiefly caused by their having been too soon masters of their own actions, and in possession of great property. Beginning without much capital of one's own is still more dangerous; for there are not many opportunities to lay money out safely, and yet so profitably that it will produce a handsome surplus for the manager of a concern who has to pay interest, and, possibly, to bear losses, before he can call any thing his own. The resources, which depend merely upon credit, are very precarious; the Lightest alteration in the aspect of affairs may stop them, or an unforeseen event may take them entirely away, and give a death blow to concerns which have no real foundation. In order to avoid this fatal catastrophe, an upearance of much business is often assumed, and stuiously kept up: goods are bought and sold on mere peculation; that is to say, at random, and with a vague Expectation of deriving advantage from passing events, which may, perhaps, prove favourable in some shape or other, provided the precarious establishment be but kept standing, and the evil day put off until such events occur. This is not doing business, it is neither more nor less than gambling; and it is generally accompanied with great expenses, which are partly brought on by the system itself, and partly by the wish of making others believe that all is well; so that even a fortunate turn in the affairs does not often tend to afford substantial relief, because the house is already too much involved to recover, and its master has already become too callous to think of any thing but just of keeping it up so long as it will last.

The Philanthropist.

THE HULKS.

The public have long been accustomed to hear of pri-
soners being sent to work on board the hulks, but as, per-
haps, a very imperfect idea is generally entertained respect-
ing them, a little information may not be unacceptable on
the subject. The hulks are large vessels without masts,
which have been line of battle-ships, or frigates, fitted up
for the reception of male convicts sentenced to be trans-
ported. These floating prisons are securely moored near
a dock-yard or arsenal, so that the labour of the convicts
may be applied to the public service. It will be scarcely
credited that there are usually about three thousand men
in the country thus employed, which the following state-
ment, supposed to be correct as to the average numbers,
will exemplify:-

At Sheerness, the Retribution containing 600
Bellerophon
Dolphin

Deptford,

Chatham,

Woolwich,

Justitia

Ganymedo

Portsmouth- York...

Leviathan

A small ship

360

400 ...230

..120

600

..500

.120

It is well known that the control of the whole system referred to is in the hands of the Home Secretary of State, and is certainly well conducted. The gentleman upon whom devolves the more immediate superintendence, is Mr. Capper, who discharges the responsible and active duties of his office with a zeal, intelligence, and humanity, which could not be easily surpassed.

The Housewife.

"Housekeeping and husbandry, if it be good,
Must love one another as cousins in blood:
The wife, too, must husband as well as the man,
Or farewel thy husbandry, do what thou can."
FISH TABLE.

The following table shows the months in which the undermentioned fish are in or out of season:

-Total 2,890
At every station there is a ship which is used as an hos- Brit
pital for the sick: each hulk is under the superintendence
of a captain and a certain number of interior officers, also Cod
a chaplain and a surgeon.

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Cole Fish in

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Flounders out in in in in in in in
in out out out
Gunels ... out out out out in in in in in out out out
Haddock in in out out out out out out out in in in
Herrings out out out in in
in in in in out out out
Lobsters in in in in in in out out in in in in
Ling in in in in in in in out out out in in
Mackarel out out out out in in in in out out out out
Muscles... in in in in out out out out in in in in
Oysters

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At the termination of the assizes or sessions, the keepers of the various gaols throughout the kingdom are required ment, a list of the convicts who have received sentence of to transmit to the Secretary of State for the Home Depart- Cockles ... in in transportation, and an order is then forwarded, directing Crabs...... in in to which of the hulks they are to be conveyed. On their arrival, they are immediately stripped and washed, clothed Dabs. un one of the legs, to which degradation every one must in coarse grey jackets and breeches, and two irons placed subinit, let his previous rank have been what it may. They are then sent out, in gangs of a certain number, to work on shore, guarded by soldiers. A strict account is kept of the labour of each gang, there being a scale by the government by the convict, he is entitled to a penny, which it is calculated, and out of each shilling earned for which is carried to his credit; but of this he receives only one third part weekly, the remainder being left to accu mulate until the expiration of the team which he is doomed to serve; thus it sometimes happens that a man who has been six or seven years on board the hulks, on his discharge is put in possession of ten or twelve pounds, and is also supplied with an additional sum of money to defray his travelling expenses home. The strictest discipline is maintained, Too great eagerness for gain, does also sometimes pro- daily allowed is a pound and a quarter of bread; a quart and extreme cleanliness enforced in the vessels. The diet duce the most pernicious consequences, not only upon the of thick gruel, morning and evening; on four days of the fortunes, but even upon the morals of the infatuated indi-week, a piece of meat weighing fourteen ounces before it iduals who give way to it. They will often risk the is cooked; and, on the other three days, in lieu of meat, a whole of their property and credit on a single undertaking, quarter of a pound of cheese, also an allowance of small which if successful, is to enrich them at once, but which borious is required, a portion of strong beer is served out. beer; and, on certain occasions, when work peculiarly lamay also prove their ruin, if it should fail. They will even No where does good behaviour meet its reward more than venture to make considerable shipments without insu at the hulks. A correct chronicle is kept of the conduct of tances, for the sake of adding the premium to their other each individual; and the captain, jointly with the chap. imaginary profits; so that they have no resource left, lain, has the privilege of recommending, annually, a cerwhen several losses take place at the same time. There so that it frequently occurs that a man sentenced to seven tain number, as fit objects for a mitigation of punishment, are, indeed, some instances, in which chance may favour years' transportation serves only three and a half or four such adventurers, but the final effect is seldom a good years. There are also other inducements to orderly conone: the more they prosper, the more they hazard; they duct, such as having the irons lightened, and being proascribe their good luck to their superior management, moted to little appointments, which relieve from severer and look with contempt upon more prudent competitors, Besides those who are retained to serve out their term of who have not the spirit to act in a similar manner: their transportation in this country, thousands are every year arrogance will be offensive, so long as they prosper, and it sent to New South Wales: four ships, containing about will deprive them of every excuse in the hour of misfor-eight or nine hundred, have recently taken their departure. tune. Such swindlers have, indeed, no claims on the in- Amongst others who are actually transported beyond the dulgence of their creditors, and they ought not to enjoy offenders, and those who appear to be incorrigible. It seas, such are invariably selected as are known to be old the privileges which were only intended for those who should be observed, that one ship, the Bellerophon, is ap. are unfortunate, without having positively misbehaved.propriated exclusively to the reception of boys not exceedHumanity and justice speak in favour of the latter, and ing sixteen years of age, most of whom are not expatriated, the noble principle of treating others as we would wish to but are taught various trades, such as shoemaking, tailors' work, bookbinding, &c. The morals of these youthful debe treated will best define how we should act towards linquents, some of whom are not more than ten years old, them; but, where there appears to have been a wanton are very carefully attended to. It is, however, a lamenrisk of other people's property, the law ought to have table fact, that, notwithstanding the severe lessons taught its course; for such proceedings undermine public con- by the discipline of the hulks, very many instances occur fidence, and are a disgrace to the country which allows habits of dishonesty, and again incurring the penalty of of convicts who have been discharged, again returning to them to remain unpunished. transportation: such characters are always banished the

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Seal Smlts out in in in our out out out out out out out
Thornbck in in in in out out out out out in in in
Turbot ... out out in in in in in in out out out out
Whiting in in in out out out out out out in in in
Cong. Eel out out in ininin in in │in | in out out

German Mode of Curing Hums.-In Westphalia, hams are cured between November and March. The Germans pile them up in deep tubs, covering them with layers of salt, saltpetre, and a small quantity of bay-leaves. In this situation they let them remain about four or five days, when they make a strong pickle of salt and water, with which they cover them completely; and at the expiration of three weeks, they take them out of pickle, soak them three weeks longer in a smoke made from the juniper twelve hours in clean well-water, and hang them up for bushes, which in that country are abundantly met with.Economist.

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