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Literary and Scientific Mirror.

" UTILE DULCI."

Tals familiar Miscellany, from which religious and political matters are excluded, contains a variety of original and selected Articles; comprehending Literature, Criticism, Men and Manners Amusement, Elegant Extracts, Poetry, Anecdotes, Biography, Meteorology, the Drama, Arts and Sciences, Wit and Satire, Fashions, Natural History, &c. &c. forming a handsome Annual Volume, with an Index and Title-page.-Its circulation renders it a most eligible medium for Literary and Fashionable Advertisements.—Regular supplies are forwarded weekly to the Agents.

No. 235.-VOL. V.

Natural History.

LETTERS ON THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GLOBE. BY M. ALEX. B.

TUESDAY, DECEMBER 28, 1824.

limits of the circle in which nature has condemned him
to vegetate? I will not, however, add one word more
upon this subject; let us only remember, in all our future
inquiries respecting the causes of the revolutions which

La kgère couche de vie, qui fleurit à la surface du globe, ne our globe has undergone, how insufficient are our means

couvre que des ruines.

Paris: printed, 1824.

[Translated expressly for the Kaleidoscope from a recent French Work.]

LETTER IL-OF THE INTERNAL MASS OF THE GLOBE.

a

It is well known that the form of our earth is that of pheroid, rather flattened at the poles. Its radius is 1500 agues in length. The highest mountains are not elevated nore than two leagues above the level of the sea; there he very few countries, whose natural situation is below at level, and the greatest depths that have been atined, in digging quarries and mines, do not exceed 00 feet. The inequalities of the soil are then very innsiderable, when compared with the total mass of the rrestrial spheroid; and if the profound abysses which wn upon its surface inspire us with terror, if we behold ith wonder the lofty mountains whose summits are lost the clouds, it is because we compare them with the tremely diminutive objects by which they are surfunded.

The contour of the earth, whose surface now appears to so rugged, would, if comprehended at a single glance, resent the appearance of a globe as smooth as those hich have received the last polish from the hands of the

tificer.

Let us suppose the inequalities upon the surface of the th imitated in relievos upon a ball of three inches in ameter, representing the terrestrial spheroid. Protutances almost imperceptible, even with microscopic aid, uld supply the place of the highest mountains; the ghtest scratch would be deeper in proportion to its meter than are our greatest artificial cavities relatively that of the earth; and the condensed vapour, occasioned breathing upon its surface, would, perhaps, be too to represent the atmosphere to the height where ads are formed.

is for ourselves, imperceptible atoms who vegetate in thin layer of humid air, it is impossible to describe, any comparison, our insignificance, and the insufficiency Our agency to the operation of any change upon the

Nevertheless, we have measured the earth, whose mensions reduce us to comparative nothingness; we ye measured the sun, which is a million times larger in the earth; we have calculated the distance which Parates us from that star, whose lustre our weak vision anot support; we have discovered in the millions of which shine in the firmament, so many suns scatfed in the immeasurable regions of the universe, and frying along with them opaque globes, whose moveents they regulate. Capable of elevating ourselves to e idea of infinity, the earth, lost in boundless space, Pears to dwindle before us to the diminutiveness of a rain of sand.

there not, then, Madam, cause to exult in the superior ature of the mind of man, which demands for the exeris of its powers a scope so far exceeding the narrow

of investigation to the discovery of the great truths of which we are in search, and how uncertain and irregular must be our progress towards it.

The terrestrial spheroid is generally divided into two parts, whose limits are arbitrarily fixed; the internal mass, that is to say, the central part, to which we shall never be able to penetrate; and the mineral crust, which serves to envelop the internal mass; the latter may be supposed to be ten or twelve leagues in thickness, but only its most superficial part is exposed to our observation.

To these two principal parts, may be added two others, which require to be studied separately, the mass of waters which cover more than three-quarters of the surface of the spheroid, and the atmospheric mass, which is a thin fluid entirely surrounding our globe, and extending to an indeterminate height. We shall first speak of the internal mass. Every one has, perhaps, at some time or other, felt curious to know, whether the whole mass of the globe consist of a succession of layers analagous to those observed near its surface, or whether the same kind of substance being always found at a certain distance from every point of its surface, it may thence be concluded that the interior of the globe is entirely composed of it. For the solution of these questions, geologists have imagined hypotheses widely differing from each other. They have successively supposed the interior of the earth to be filled with water, gas, with an enormous mass of loadstone, and with metals, either in a solid or a liquid state.

Diderot, whose principal object it was to explain the magnetic action of the earth, considered its internal part to be formed of a vitrified nucleus, upon which the friction of the exterior moveable shell produced the same effect, as that caused by the rubbing of the cushions of an electrical machine against its cylinder.

The most probable of all these hypotheses, and the only one compatible with all the phenomena that have till now been observed, is that in which it is admitted that the internal mas is composed of metallic matter kept in a state of fusion by the action of heat.

We know the exact magnitude of the earth, and it is also possible for us to calculate its weight. Natural philosophy and astronomy furnish us with two different means of attaining this knowledge. The result of each of these is a weight so considerable, that the interior of the earth must necessarily be five or six times more dense than the mineral crust, supposing the latter to consist entirely of a succession of layers similar to those observed near its surface. The internal mass is therefore formed neither of gas nor water, nor even of the hardest stone with which we are acquainted. In any of these cases, its weight would be three or four times less considerable than we have reason to believe it to be; but it must consist entirely of substances as heavy as our heaviest metals.

These metals, as they exist in the internal mass, have not the solidity imparted to those exposed to the temperature which reigns upon the surface of the soil. All circumstances concur to prove that they are subject to the

PRICE 3d.

action of a heat capable of keeping them in a state of constant fusion. This fact is demonstrated by the enormous masses of liquid metallic matter ejected by volcanos.

There is every reason to believe, as we shall soon see, that the foci of volcanos are situated at immense depths under the soil. Besides, the number of volcanos, as well extinct as burning, which is infinitely more considerable than is generally thought, and the perfect resemblance existing between the lavas of those situated in the most distant places, cannot be explained by any of the local causes by which philosophers were for a long time willing to account for them. This resemblance naturally leads to the supposition, that they derive their common origin from a burning mass, identical in its composition. Mineral springs and thermal waters of every kind, some of which still preserve the heat of boiling water when they issue from the grouud, present us with new proofs of the high temperature existing at a certain depth under the surface of the earth.

We are indebted to M. Trebra, the director of the mines, for one of the most curious observations that have been made in modern times. This gentleman having had occasion to visit the deepest artificial cavities, discovered that the temperature constantly rises, in proportion as we approach the centre of the earth, and that this aug. mentation takes place in a regular manner, that is, at the rate of a degree in 150 metres. Consequently, in very deep mines the heat becomes insupportable.

You will easily understand, Madam, how impossible it is to suppose, after this discovery, that the earth has no other heat than that communicated to it by the rays of the sun. This solar heat, though capable of producing upon its surface the changes of the seasons, and the alternate' temperatures of day and night, does not extend its influence to any considerable depth, as may be perceived by the coolness of all subterraneous places. A thermometer, placed at the observatory, at the depth of eightyseven feet under the ground, did not, during the hottest summers and coldest winters of the priod between the years 1787 and 1819, vary 1-37th of a degree.

The temperature is generally admitted to be invariable' at the depth of 100 feet below the surface of the earth; but instead of continuing at the same degree at all depths below that point, it then begins gradually to increase, in proportion as we approach the centre of the earth.

The more we reflect upon the subject, the more we are convinced how extremely limited and superficial is the action of the solar heat. The effect produced by it is scarcely perceptible, except in places where it is concentrated by the reflexion of surrounding objects. So inconsiderable is its influence upon high mountains, that the summits even of those situated under the equator are covered with snow, which does not begin to melt at any height exceeding that of 4,800 metres above the level of the sea.

If the mineral crust were less thick, the internal heat, penetrating more easily to the surface of the soil, would probably occasion there a temperature much more elevated than that which we feel in the present state of things. It is, therefore, the general opinion that the surface of the earth is constantly growing cooler, although so slowly that the change is hardly perceptible.

Many naturalists have even been led to consider our globe as a small incrustated sun. According to them, its whole mass must primitively have been incandescent like that of the sun; since it began to move in space, it has become sufficiently cold, to permit its exterior part to grow solid. This hard envelope has, in the course of ages, increased in thickness; and the earth, thus growing cold by degrees, is irrevocably condemned finally to be converted into a frozen lifeless mass, revolving round a sun, whose heat, also gradually diminishing, will at length be entirely exhausted.

Scientific Records.

[Comprehending Notices of new Discoveries or Improve-
ments in Science or Art; including, occasionally, sin-
gular Medical Cases; Astronomical, Mechanical, Phi-
fosophical, Botanical, Meteorological, and Mineralogical
Phenomena, or singular Facts in Natural History;
Vegetation, &c.; Antiquities, &c.; List of Patents;
to be continued in a series through the Volume.]

RAIL-WAYS.

In the Mercury of the 17th instant, the editors venDo not, Madam, entirely despise this opinion, which tured to dissent in opinion from the able editor of the has been admitted by Buffon; be not either too much Scotsman, on the subject of some of the positions laid down in the following article. The view taken by the disheartened by the probability that it is well founded, as Mercury derives additional countenance from an able corother learned men have encouraged us to hope that its respondent of that journal, whose letter appeared last correctness may very reasonably be doubted. It is true Friday. In order that our scientific readers may be enthat many of them do not promise us a much more agree-abled to decide between the Mercury and the Scotsman, able fate; they condemn us, or rather our descendants, to it is only fair that we here insert the whole of the original see our rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans gradually evaporate, article, out of which a discussion has arisen, which will, until the earth, being dried up, will be set on fire by the in all probability, be further prolonged. We shall also sun. Upon the whole, I should prefer this mode of de- give a place here to the comments of the Mercury on that struction to the other; it is more prompt, and the splendid article, omitting the paragraphs commented upon, as they conflagration which it leads us to anticipate, is less ter-will be found in the extract from the Scotsman.-Ed. Kal. rific to the imagination, than the lingering frozen death threatened by Buffon.

[FROM THE SCOTSMAN.]

In our last we gave a brief account of the nature and construction of railways. We now pursue our inquiry on railways and canals.

ducing the ton to 2000 pounds for the sake of round power of traction of 100 pounds moves a mass of 50 numbers, as in the last calculation, we find here that a pounds; or the resistance which the water opposes to te motion of the vessel is equal to 1-900th part of the lead, or entire weight. At sea, where the water way is of un limited breadth, the resistance is probably one-third less; but, as a compensation for this, when steam power is em ployed, there is probably a loss of one-third in consequence of the disadvantageous mode of its application.

We see, then, that the effect produced by the draught of a single horse is ten times as great upon a railway, and thirty times as great upon a canal as upon a well-made road. Yet a railway costs only about three times as mad as a good turnpike road, and a canal about nine much times! and the expense of keeping the railway and canal in repair is probably less in proportion to the original out were railways to come into general use, two-thirds or mate lay, than in the case of a road. It is obvious, then, that of the expense of transporting commodities would be saved. With regard to the comparative advantages of canals and railways, so far as the present facts go, we may observe, that if a horse power effects three times as much three times as much, and will of course require nearly the upon a canal as upon a railway, the canal costs about same rates or dues per ton to make the capital yield the same interest.

Some chemists have assured us that the earth will again revive from its ashes, and that this great combustion will occasion so considerable a quantity of water, that it must into the effects of a determinate force of traction employed be. But this is far from being the case, as we shall p

evaporate for several centuries, before some continents can be left dry. The form of the earth is exactly that which would be impressed upon its mass, by the action of gravity, if it were in a liquid state; and this fact was for a long time produced to corroborate the hypothesis of the earth's primitive state of incandescence.

Voltaire has much ridiculed Maupertuis, for having proposed the expedient of piercing a hole to the centre of the earth; this would nevertheless be the surest means of discovering what species of matter is there contained; yet, if our conjectures be well founded, it would be impossible to penetrate far, on account of the extreme heat that would soon become perceptible. Whatever might be the success of such an attempt, it would at least be curious to ascertain the kind of obstacle that would prevent its completion, and I cannot help regretting that no sovereign has yet undertaken an enterprise so worthy of awakening ambition. One step has been made towards the accomplishment of a work of this nature in the labours already executed in the deepest mines.

I shall terminate this letter by remarking, that however considerable the number of volcanos may be in our days, it must formerly have been much greater.

There is no country in which traces of extinct volcanoes do not abound; they are discovered by the beds of lava with which they have covered the surrounding soil, and which often extend to very great distances.

But here it is of great importance to recollect that thi computation refers solely to a velocity of two miles an habe. If the friction which impedes the motion of a car or wa gon, and the resistance which the water offers to the p gress of a ship, were governed by the same laws, the s conclusions would hold true whatever the velocity might sently see. In illustrating this point, it will be conve nient, instead of estimating effects by the variable measure of a horse power, to refer to a determinate and constant force of traction of a given amount. We shall therefor assume, that the body to be moved is urged forward force exactly equivalent to a weight of 100 pounds, pended over a pully at the end of the plane on which

moves.

In calculations respecting the power of a horse exerted
in different modes, errors often arise from considering this
power as a constant quantity, which it is not. At a dead-
pull, an ordinary horse exerts a force of traction equal to
150 pounds; this is reduced to less than one-half when he
travels four miles an hour; to one-ninth part when he
travels eight miles an hour; and at 12 miles an hour, his
whole strength is expended in carrying forward his own
body, and his power of traction ceases. It is supposed is
here that the horse performs pretty long journeys. When
ably greater; and his power of traction may perhaps cease
travelling very short stages, he may exert a force consider-
only at a velocity of 15 or 16 miles an hour. But in com-
mon cases a velocity of 12 miles may be taken as the
maximum, and for the convenience of calculation the
dead-pull may be taken at 144 pounds. Adopting, then,
Professor Leslie's rule, the force of traction at any degree
of velocity () will be-(12-)2. Thus, the force exerted,
at 2 miles an hour, will be 100 pounds; at 4 miles, 64
pounds; at 6 miles, 36 pounds; at 8 miles, 16 pounds;
and at 10 miles, only 4 pounds. Steam-engine makers
assume a horse-power to be equal to a weight of 180 or 200
pounds, but this is to be considered merely as an arbitrary
and conventional standard, adopted for a particular pur-
pose. It is necessary to keep this general conclusion in
view when we speak of the application of horse-power to
the traction of loaded waggons and vessels.

The resistance to the motion of a vessel in the sea or a

canal, is of an extremely different kind from that which
a carriage of any kind experiences upon a common road
or a railway. In the former case it arises from the pres-
sure of the water on the bow and sides of the vessel; in
the latter, from the friction of the axle in its box, and

The motion of the body in both cases is resisted also by
the air; but this resistance, which is small in amount,
generally speaking, we shall throw entirely out of view in
the first instance, in order to simplify our calculations.
On a well-made road a horse will draw a load of one
ton, in a cart weighing 7 cwt. at the rate of two miles an
hour. Leslie's Elements, p. 253.) The whole strength
of the horse is exerted in overcoming the friction. On such
a road, therefore, a force of traction of 100 pounds moves
a weight of 3000 pounds, or the friction is 1-30th part of
the load (the cart included.)

deduced from the constitution of fluids, and contras First, with regard to the motion of a body in water, by experiment, that the resistance which a floating body of the velocity.+ encounters in its motion through the fluid is as the squaro effect of force of traction of 100 pounds at two miles Now, taking as a basis the known hour, let us ascertain what force would move the same body at a greater velocity. On the canal, or arm of the sea, we have seen that a body weighing 90,000 pounds impelled at the rate of two miles an hour by a force of 100 pounds; therefore, to move the same body At 4 miles an hour, will require.... 400 pounds. At 6 ditto ditto.. 900 ditto. At 8 ditto......1600 ditto. At 12 ditto

ditto

ditto

Or conversely:

...

......3600 ditto,

100 pounds moves 90,000 pounds at 2 miles an hour.

or 22,500

or 10,000

or 5,620

or 2,500

at 4

ditto.

[blocks in formation]

ditto.

at 12
Hence we see that when we have to contend with
a small increase of velocity. To make a ship sail
resistance of water, a great increase of power produces bet
times faster, for instance, we must employ wine time

for example, that it were required to determine, siz
ploy no less than thirty-six times the power. Let us k
horse draws a boat, loaded with thirty tons, at two
an hour, how many horses would draw the same bost s
100 times as fast, it will require four times the absolute
four miles. We find, first, that since the boat is to more
four miles an hour, pulls only with a force of 64 pound
amount of power, or 400 pounds. But a horse, moving
Of course, it would require six horses to exert a power
400 pounds, and move the boat at the rate proposed.

all mountains had a volcanic origin; but they were wrong. Some geologists have even gone so far as to believe that that of the rim of the wheel on the gravel or iron rail. power; and to make her sail six times faster, we mus It is at least certain that the number of ancient volcanos is, by the result of the most enlightened researches, daily demonstrated to have been much greater than it has till now been supposed. It is impossible, in France, to make excavations for fifty leagues in any direction, without finding beds of lava. The first volcanos of the earth were opened in the primitive soil before the secondary soil was formed; they have since been covered by layers of soil, of which the successive formation has so evidently been occasioned by the sea or immense lakes of fresh water.-in our former paper, that a horse travelling at the same On a railway of the best construction, it has been shown But, without anticipating what I shall presently have to rate of two miles an hour, draws 15 tons, including the say upon this subject, I will be contented with remarking vehicles. In this case, then, a power of traction of 100 that this immense quantity of volcanos opened in the pri- pounds moves a weight of 33,600 pounds; the friction, of

Let us now see what amount of power will produce cor tion occasioned by friction, instead of increasing as the responding effects upon a railway. And before we make more particular inquiry, let us suppose that the retards square of the velocity like the resistance of a fluid, increase in the simple ratio of the velocity. We have seen, then, that a force of traction of 100 pounds, upon a level rail

mitive soil, while the solid crust was less thick, tends much course, is 1-366th part, or, in round numbers, 1-300th way, moves a body weighing 30,000 pounds, at the rate of

[blocks in formation]

at 4 miles

at 6 miles

at 8 miles

at 12 miles

by by by by

30,000lb. are moved at 2 miles an hour by a power of 100lb. 200lb. 300lb. 400lb. 600lb. A power of 100 pounds moves 30,000lb. at 2 miles per hour.

Or conversely:

two miles an hour. We may hence calculate the effect | ploy, is an element that may be entirely neglected, would or fly-wheel, to limit or equalize the motion, the pheno produced by any greater amount of power: then become the principal retarding force. We need menon may be put to the test, under circumstances very scarcely add, that the question of time or velocity, rightly analagous to those supposed by the hypothesis of the Scotch considered, involves every thing connected with the mertheorist. A small wheel carriage may easily be constructcantile advantage of different modes of communication. We have here considered the subject in a purely theore-ed, to be impelled forwards by clock-work. Such a cartical light, leaving it to the engineer to find the means of riage may be made to revolve in a small circle; and, giving effect to the truths we have stated. We shall enter indeed, we have seen a model of the kind in operation. into various details in a future paper, and touch upon some Now, if this machine were placed under the receiver of as or 15,000lb. at 4 points of a practical nature. In the mean time we think or 10,000lb. at 6 it right to say, that the conclusions we have announced perfect an air-pump as can be constructed, and put into or 7,500lb. at 8 are strictly conformable to experiments carefully made by motion; if the theory under investigation be correct, a or 5,000lb. at 12 Vince and Coulomb,-but as there are anomalies in the visible acceleration in speed ought to take place. But Hence we see that, though a moving force of one hun- doctrines regarding friction, and as the velocities employed we will wager a few pounds with our brother editor, that dred pounds produces three times as great an effect upon in the experiments alluded to were much lower than some a canal as upon a railway at two miles an hour, this suthat are likely to occur in railway communications, we do no such result will occur; and if we win, we will expend periority of the water conveyance is lost, if we adopt a not take upon us to guarantee the literal accuracy of the the amount in books for our Apprentices and Mechanics' velocity at six miles an hour, and at all greater velocities principles laid down as applicable to every possible ve- Library." the same expenditure of power will produce a greater ef-locity. We certainly believe that the conclusions founded We cannot divest ourselves of the persuasion that bodies, fect upon a railway, than upon a canal, a river, or the sea. upon in our calculations, will hold true at all the veloci-moving on an horizontal plane, even if there were no opThis calculation proceeds on the hypothesis that the ties whatever, and they are stated without limitation by friction increases in the simple ratio of the velocity. Such the most profound mechanicians, Leslie, Playfair, Young, position from the atmosphere, do not follow the law of was the opinion of Ferguson, Mushenbroch, and some &c., but we thought it right to mention a circumstance bodies falling perpendicularly to the earth. other writers; but the more recent and accurate experi- which some may consider as materially affecting their uniments of Coulomb and Vince have overthrown this doc- versal application. trine, and established conclusions extremely different, of which the following is an abstract:

1. The friction of iron sliding on iron is 28 per cent. of the weight, but is reduced to 25 per cent. after the body is in motion.

2. Friction increases in a ratio nearly the same with that of the pressure. If we increase the load of a sledge or carriage four times, the friction will be nearly, but not quite, four times greater.

2. Friction is nearly the same whether the body moves on a small or a greater surface; but it is rather less when the surface is small. (4) It is with this last law only that we have to do at present; and it is remarkable that the extraordinary results, to which it leads, have been, so far as we know, entirely overLooked by writers on roads and railways. These results, indeed, have an appearance so paradoxical, that they will shock the faith of practical men, though the principle from which they flow is admitted without question by all scientific mechanicians.

(b) First, It follows from this law that, abstracting the resistance of the air, if a car were set in motion on a level railway, with a constant force greater in any degree than is required to overcome its friction, the car would proceed with a motion continually accelerated, like a falling body acted upon by the force of gravitation; and however small the original velocity might be, it would in time increase beyond any assignable limit. It is only the resistance of the air, increasing as the square of the velocity, that prerents this indefinite acceleration, and ultimately renders the motion uniform."

(c) Secondly, Setting aside, again, the resistance of the air the effects of which we shall estimate by and by) the very ame amount of constant force which impels a car on a ailway at two miles an hour, would impel it at ten or wenty miles an hour, if an extra force were employed t first to overcome the inertia of the car, and generate e required velocity. Startling as this proposition may ppear, it is an indisputable and necessary consequence the laws of friction. In fact, assuming that the sistance of the air were withdrawn, if we suppose a orizontal railway made round the globe, and the masine (supplied with a power exactly equivalent to the iction) to be placed on the railway, and launched by A impulse with any determinate velocity, it would revolve or ever with the velocity so imparted, and be in truth a ort of secondary planet to our globe.

[FROM THE LIVERPOOL MERCURY.]

RAIL ROADS AND NEW MECHANICAL PARADOX.

-In a late number of the Scotsman, an article appeared
on the subject of rail-ways, which is of so extraordinary a
nature, that we shall appropriate the whole of it in the
scientific department of the Kaleidoscope, in the hope that
some of our readers may be induced to investigate certain
paradoxical positions therein laid down, which we suspect
to be erroneous. The phenomenon, to which we especially
allude, and which merits the appellation of the second
"Mechanical Paradox," we shall here notice in the words
of the Northern journalist; to which we shall subjoin a
few remarks of our own, suggested by a cursory reading.
The principal part of the article consists of calculations
respecting the respective resistance of bodies moving on
ordinary roads, in a fluid, and on rail-roads.

On the subject of friction, certain results, deduced from
the opinions of eminent mathematicians, are stated, one
of which (4) is, that "the friction of rolling and sliding
bodies follows nearly, but not precisely, the same law as
to velocity; and that law is, that the friction is the same
for all velocities."

[Here follow the three paragraphs to which we have affixed the letters (a) (b) (c).]

The Mercury, in reference to these three paragraphs,
then proceeds as follows:

facts (if such they be) will shock the faith of practical
Well might the writer in the Scotsman assert, that these
men. He might have added, and of theoretical men also.
For our own parts, while we avow our own disbelief of the
theory, we do it with all the diffidence befitting persons
whose knowledge of such subjects has been superseded by
other and more urgent speculations; and if we are mis-
taken in the view we take of the matter, our consolation
must be, that we err in common with many others with
whom we have conversed on the subject, who all view it
in the light in which it presented itself to us at first sight.
If we understand aright the position which we venture
to question, it is, that a locomotive machine, set in motion
on a level railway, with a constant force greater in any
degree than is required to overcome the friction, would
proceed with a motion continually accelerated, like a fall.
ing body acted upon by the force of gravitation, and how
ever small the original velocity might be, would in time
increase "beyond any assignable limit," provided the
pressure of the air did not act as a check to limit and
equalize the rate.

Now, it would be at all times easy (as we shall afterwards
how) to convert this accelerated motion into a uniform
notion of any determinate velocity; and from the nature
f the resistance, a high velocity would cost almost as
ittle, and may be as easily obtained as a low one. For
l velocities, therefore, above four or five miles an hour,
ailways will afford facilities for communication prodi-
iously superior to canals or arms of the sea. Indeed,
here is scarcely any limit to the rapidity of movement
hese iron pathways will enable us to command; and we
annot give a better idea of the astonishing power they put
into our hands, than by referring to the remark of Dr.
Young, quoted in our last. What he states is strictly Now, if this phenomenon should happen, were the at-
true, that the resistance of the air, which, with the velo-mosphere abstracted, it seems natural to conclude, that it
cities and powers of traction we now commonly em-

Leslie's Elements, p. 188, &c.; Playfair's Outlines, 1. 88, &c.; Journal de Physique, 1785; Philosophical Transactionss, 1785. Dr. Brewster has given the results of Coulomb's experiments in a tabular form, in the article Mechanics, in his Encyopedaia

would be observable in a less degree under ordinary cir-
cumstances; in which case, so singular a fact could scarcely
have escaped the observation of practical men, who have
for years witnessed the operation of locomotive machines.

If, however, the atmosphere act as a kind of regulator

A body falling, or gravitating to the earth, moves quicker as it approaches it :-the earth being the source of attraction, acts more powerfully upon the body attracted the nearer it approximates it.

If a magnet (and such the centre of the earth may be regarded, by way of illustration) be held at a distance from a steel ball, it will attract it in a ratio increasing as the squares of the distance decrease ;-the magnet being the source of attraction, the ball must necessarily accelerate in speed, until the two bodies come into contact. But it appears to us that a locomotive machine, moving on a plain, even if the air were annihilated, is altogether under different circumstances. There is no goal before it, to which it is drawn by attraction or gravitation. There is simply a machine of a limited power; and until we can believe that indefinite and similar effects can result from definite and dissimilar causes, we cannot believe the proposition, that the velocity of a locomotive machine, under the presumed circumstances, would increase “beyond any assignable limit."

As we have always professed ourselves inimical to gam

bling in any shape, our only excuse, on the present occasion, must be the purpose to which we should apply the winnings, if they should happen to fall to our share.

Miscellanies.

Two of our living poets were conversing on the actorsher." Rogers, "that I wonder you never made open love to "Your admiration of Mrs. Siddons is so high," said "To that magnificent and appalling creature! I should have as soon thought of making love to the Archbishop of Canterbury.”

The Prices. Four gentlemen of the name of Price, all of very different dimensions, are members of a literary society, and are thus distinguished by the other meinbers: the tall one is called High Price, the short one, Low Price, the fat one,, Full Price, and the thin one Half Price.

After he had suffered amputation with the greatest courage, Latour Maubourg lost his leg at the battle of Leipsic. he saw his servant crying, or pretending to cry, in one corner of the room. None of your hypocritical tears, glad, for now you will have only one boot to clean instead you idle dog," said his master; 66 you know you are very of two."

At the theatre one evening, whilst Munden and Fawcett were dressing, the latter observing the former screwing up his face before a looking-glass, asked him "if he had bottled his eyes ?" "Yes," returned Munden, "and I am now going to cork my eye-brows."

A gentleman who had neither voice nor skill, once attempting to sing in company, when he had come to a conclusion, Bannister said, "Your song, sir, is like the plain, explain."-" Why," rejoined the wit," a devilish small pox."-"How is that?" said the company—“ exgood thing when it is over."

During the riots in 1780, a magistrate being asked why he had not called upon the posse comitatus, replied, "that he would have done so, but knew not his address."

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FOR THE YEARS 1824 & 1825.

THE ANNALS of SPORTING, and FANCY GAZETTE; a Magazine entirely appropriated to Spet ing Subjects, published on the 1st of every Month, price s The Proprietors, on the approach of a new Year, leave to call the public attention to the increasing celebrity of this popular Work, the forthcoming Number of which be published on the 1st of January) will begin a new Volun and be embellished with Two capital Engravings, viz 1. A fine Plate of the Alpine Mastiff, by Landseer. 2. A beautiful Plate of Snipe Shooting, from a Dravy Fielding.

The general plan of this Work is so well known to the Sporting World, that it is only necessary for the Proprieto to state that it will continue to be conducted on its present liberal scale with respect to paper, print, and fillustration and that no pains or expense will be spared to render every way worthy of the public attention. The Sixth lume, which is just completed, contaifis a variety of Original Communications, from different parts of the Kingdom, on

Rowing and Sailing Accompanied with the Racing Calendar, &c. The Work complete, for the year 1824, forms Two Volumes, Price 15 each, handsomely half-bound.

The Embellishments to these Volumes comprise a fine graved Portrait, by Landseer, of a Cross between the De and Fox, from a subject in the possession of Lord Cranley Five Fox-hounds, Portraits, of the Hatfield Hunt; a beautif Engraving of Jerry, the Winner of the Doncaster St. Leg from a Painting by Herring; a Perspective Elevation of the Grand Stand at Doncaster; Plans and Surveys of Doncaste and other principal Race Courses; Portraits of the Areti Fox, Scotch Terrier, &c.

London: Printed for Sherwood, Jones, and Co. Paternos ter-row.

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This day is published, by Hurst, Robinson, and Co. 90,
Cheapside, and 8, Pall Mall, London, and A. Constable and
Co. Edinburgh, handsomely boarded, with engraved orna-
mental Covers, and Gilt Leaves, price Twelve Shillings,

The following rules have been handed to us by a correspondent, who states that they are observed at the Lower THE LITERARY SOUVENIR, or CABINET of Assembly Rooms, Bath.

"That after a lady has called a dance, it being finished, er place in the next dance is at the bottom.

"It is deemed a point of good breeding, for ladies that ave gone down the dance, to continue in their places till the rest have done the same.

"That those who stand up after the country dance is called, do take their place at the bottom, unless rank entitles them to precedence."

LONDON NORTHERN RAIL-ROAD COM-
PANY, to connect BIRMINGHAM, DERBY, NOT-
INGHAM, HULL, and MANCHESTER with each other,
ith the Parts adjacent, and with the METROPOLIS.

CHAIRMAN:

GEORGE HIBBERT, Esq.

DEPUTY CHAIRMEN :

ASCOR GRENEELL, Esq. M.P. JOHN SMITH, Esq. M.P.
EWIS LOYD, Esq.

EDWARD WAKEFIELD, Esq.

DIRECTORS:

mes Evan Baillie, Esq.
ancis Baring, Esq.
ndon Evelyn, Esq. M.P,
ward Ellice, Esq. M.P.
Robert Farquhar, Bart.
arles David Gordon, Esq.

John Irving, Esq. M.P.
George W. Norman, Esq.
Frederick Pigon, Esq.
Thomas Richardson, Esq.
James Waire, Esq.

AUDITORS:

chard Hart Davis, Esq. M.P. | Joseph Fry, Esq.
non M'Gillivray, Esq.
Edward Goldsmid, Esq.

BANKERS:

Lessra. Smith, Payne, and Smiths, Mansion House-street; James Esdaile, Hammet, Grenfell, and Scott, Lombardta MEETING held at the London Tavern on the 13th instant,

street.

Present,

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Political Economy.

MR. M'CULLOCH'S LECTURE

ON FOREIGN COMMERCE,

The following has been politely handed to us as a report of one of Mr. M'Culloch's interesting lectures. For

Campbell, Montgomery, Mrs. Hemans, Maturin, Alaric A. any errors of statement which may be found in the report
Watts, Bowles, Hogg, Cunningham, L. E. L. Authoress of Mr. C. is not in any degree accountable; but we are of
"The Improvisatrice," Croly, Wrangham, the author of "
May
you like it," Colton, Wiffen, Opie, Delta (of Blackwood's Maga- opinion it is substantially correct.
sine) the Rev. Thomas Dale, and many other Writers of
equal Celebrity.

The Literary Souvenir is a very graceful and agreeable book,
It will be unnecessary for me to enter into any length-
both inside and outside, and does infinite credit both to ened discussion on the advantages derived from the home
the Editor and Publishers. Some of our friends-Croly, trade.-Its advantages are, indeed, too obvious and striking
Delta, and Davie Lyndsay, contribute some capital pieces.to require to be pointed out.
Blackwood's Magazine.
Each province or district of
This is, without exception, the most elegant and attrac- an extensive country has some particular mineral, vege-
tive little work we have seen issue from the press. The em- table, or animal production, or some peculiarity of soil or
bellishments are really beautiful; but, beautiful as they are, climate, which fits it for being appropriated in preference
they are only a secondary consideration. The literary de- to certain species of industry. A district which abounds
partment of the work is such as must secure it popularity.-in coal, which has an easy access to the ocean, and the

Courier, Nov. 27.

command of an extensive internal navigation, is the natural seat of manufactures. Wheat, and other kinds of grain, are the proper products of rich and fertile soils; and cattle, after being bred in mountainous districts, are most advantageously fattened in low and meadow grounds. It is evident that the inhabitants of these different districts, by confining themselves to the particular branches of industry, natural capability, must produce an infinitely greater quan. for the prosecution of which they possess some peculiar to apply their labour indiscriminately to every employtity of commodities than they could possibly do were they ment; and they must thus derive the same advantages from this variety of natural qualifications and powers of production as are derived by each separate individual from the division of labour.

A few Copies of the Work are printed in Post 8vo, with Proofs of the Plates, on India Paper, price £1 48. ROYAL LEWISIAN SYSTEM OF WRITING. William Williams, Esq. M.P. MR. LEWIS (from the Royal Academy, London) the real Inventor of the New Mathematical System of Writing, under the immediate and especial patronage of his Majesty and other branches of the Royal Family, and nearly every person of distinction in the United Kingdom, presents Liverpool and its vicinity, and begs to inform them, that in his grateful acknowledgments to the worthy inhabitants of perienced, during his short residence among them, and the consequence of the very great encouragement he has exurgent solicitations of many respectable persons who wish to avail themselves of his instruction, he will do himself the honour of prolonging his stay in Liverpool beyond the period he had fixed for his departure to town. Mr. Lewis will, therefore, continue to receive those who apply BEFORE MONDAY, THE 17th JANUARY, BEYOND WHICH TIME HE MUST POSITIVELY DECLINE ADMITTING ANY NEW PUPIL. His system is equally But it is easy to see that foreign commerce, or the terriapplicable to persons of all ages and capacities; and, how-torial division of labour between different and independent ever incorrectly the Pupil may write, it will infallibly era- countries, must contribute to increase the wealth of each dicate all bad habits, and communicate (in SIX SHORT and EASY LESSONS) a quick and beautiful style of Writing; in precisely the same manner that the home trade contriso free, elegant, and expeditious, as no other method of butes to increase the wealth of different provinces of the teaching ever yet discovered can possibly impart, and from same kingdom. Distant countries are endowed with still. which it is impossible for him ever after to deviate. greater diversities of climate and soil, and peculiarities of national character and political institutions than can possibly be enjoyed by the different provinces of the same country; and, consequently, the advantages resulting from the home trade must be produced by foreign commerce, on a still more extensive scale. It would evidently France or Spain in England, than to make Yorkshire. cost an infinitely greater expense to raise the wines of yield the same products as Devonshire. Indeed there area

WILLIAM WILLIAMS, Esq. M.P. in the Chair, nd many other Gentlemen, it was resolved"That a communication, by Rail-way, connecting London 4th Manchester and Birmingham, and also Hull with Manester and London, would be an object of great public tility. "That a Company be formed, with a capital consisting of wo Millions Five Hundred Thousand Pounds, for that These Resolutions having passed, the Meeting then adHrned to Monday, the 20th instant, when the abovenamed entlemen were appointed as the London Direction, and the allowing Resolution was passed unanimously:

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Terms for the whole Course, One Guinea.
Numerous Specimens may be seen by applying to Mr
Lewis, at his Lecture Rooms, No. 5, Paradise-street.
SHORT HAND taught in SIX LESSONS, for ONE GUINEA, on
the plan made use of by the Public Reporters, with their
mode of following a speaker by contractions, hitherto kept
a secret; and their infallible method of abbreviating and de-
ciphering, without burthening the memory.
N.B. Pupils are detained only one hour each Lesson, and

may attend any time that suits their own convenience.
SEPARATE APARTMENTS FOR LADIES.

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