houses and forts-the sunny climate of Valencia could not protect her from conquest-Lisbon was plundered-Amsterdam was captured with scarcely any resistance-Hanover yielded to her monarch's foe-the watery walls of Venice were no defence to her independence—the inhabitants of the proud cities of Milan, Mantua, Genoa, Florence, knelt in submission to their conqueror-Rome forgot her ancient fame, and was occupied by an enemy -Berne, Underwalden, Geneva, groaned beneath foreign despotic power-Brussels saw the enemy's legions encamped in her streets-Moscow was the scene of conflagration, and five hundred thousand human beings were deprived of their homes and their altars-Berlin, Warsaw, and Vienna, beheld foreign standards waving in triumph over their parks, their palaces, and their pavilions-Paris, which had sent her legions to all the other cities in Europe, twice saw her own streets in military occupation of her foes-a hundred various nations. stained a thousand fields of battle with their blood.

When the philosopher inquires what was the result of so much tumult, of so many sieges, of so many battles, of so many wars, he is told that, at the concluding treaty, each monarch retained his original dominion, with a few trivial exceptions.

C

There must be some cause for such a result, and that cause we shall proceed to investigate; and in doing so we shall be convinced that the physical structure of the soil exercises great influence over the history of every country.

The barriers erected by nature between communities of men vary in strength; let us examine them in the following order:

CHAPTER II.

ON RIVERS.

THEIR DISADVANTAGES AS BOUNDARIES- A BAD MILITARY LINE-BASINS OF RIVERS-LAW OF GROTIUS RESPECTING RIVERS CONTROVERTED.

In the first ages of man, a river is a true boundary, for it prevents the passage of armies: there is an ancient Scottish proverb, that Forth bridles the wild Highlandman. They are now used as a boundary, chiefly because they afford a definite line, about which there cannot be any dispute. Europe, Asia, Africa, America, present numerous examples.

The Rhine, in its course between Basle and Lauterburg, forms the boundary between France and Germany.

The Solway Frith and the Tweed constituted for many centuries the boundary line between England and Scotland.

The river Tornea now forms a barrier between Sweden and Russia.

The Po separates the Austrian possessions in Italy from the estates of the Roman See.

The Danube and the Save divide Hungary from the Othman European dominions.

The Elbe, in part of its course, forms the southern frontier of Denmark.

The river Minho separates the northern provinces of Portugal from the dominions of Spain. The Tigris forms the boundary between the empires of Turkey and Persia.

The river Mississipi formerly separated the British possessions in North America from New Spain.

The Rio Colorada, in great part of its course, now constitutes the boundary between the United States and Texas.

The Rió Norte divides the republic of Texas from the dominions of Mexico.

In the northern part of the same continent, the river Niagara, and the St. Lawrence in a portion of its course, form the boundary between the United States and the British Canadian provinces.

The river St. Croix interposes between New Brunswick and the United States.

A singular fact takes place in regard to rivers: a small stream is a better division between nations than a large river.

The Rubicon, and not the Po, was the boundary of ancient Rome.

The Pruth would not form a line of demarcation between Turkey and Russia, but there is a scanty population on its bank.

France has fought to obtain the boundary of the Rhine; she must now either advance to the mountains beyond, or retire to the next range of hills in her present territory.

The reason of this law is obvious. The fertile banks of large rivers are usually peopled by numerous tribes of men: the calm and tranquil surface of the river invites them to cross over; the interests of commerce keep up a continual intercourse; the river is easily passed, and both banks will speedily unite under one government. Never have the Ganges, the Nile, the Danube, or the Rhine, seen hostile nations with firm possession of their opposite shores.

The small stream which divides Spain and Portugal is a more lasting boundary than the Tagus would be if it flowed in the same direction.

"Where Lusitania and her sister meet,

Deem ye what bounds the rival realms divide?

Or ere the jealous queens of nations greet,

Doth Tayo interpose her mighty tide?