C. Adopt oratorical rhythm, with variation according to subject-matter (cf. pp. xli-xlii, Rule I. A, B, C), and emphasize according to Rule V. p. xliv. The period will be hardly more frequently used than in Oratory; far less so than in ordinary historical prose, because less suited to reasoning and conversation. As regards Idioms,

I. Study more carefully than ever the ways of rendering English abstract terms by concretes and the replacing of nouns by verbs: cf. 1 (a); (1) 1—10; 1 (b) or 18. 1–9, and (1) 14-20; 4 and (4); (5) b and 5; (9) 10 and 9. 2, 13—16; (14) 1 and 14 3-5; (16) 1 and 16. 1; (17) 10 and 17. 2; (25) a and 25. 14, &c. ; or the replacing of complex double abstract terms by more simple and concrete abstractions: cf. (5) b. 4, 6, 7 with 5. 5, 10, &c.

Certain classes of substantives illustrating this rule naturally occur more frequently in philosophical prose, e.g. such as 'problems,' 'theory,' 'question' (res or utrum, ně, &c.), extent, amount, &c., quantum (see Hints, §§ 2, 3); deductions, inferences, conclusions, assumptions, admissions, quod colligis [conjectura]—concludis, sumis, das; logical or illogical deduction male (or vere) connexum or conclusum, non consequens, non efficitur ex propositis; major premiss, quod primum ponis; limits, area, sphere of question, fines; 'base, fundamentum jactum; 'begging the question,' gratuitous assumptions, cf. P. 3. 17, 18; 9. 2-16; arguments, maxims, axioms, premisses, &c., P. 14. 10—17; 15. 1, 16—23; 16. 1—5; 17. 10— 22; 18. 15-17; 26 (b). 7; induction from particulars,' 'free will,' 'principles,' 'revolutions,' 'reactions,'' demoralization,' 'analogy,' 'harmony,' 'retirement,' &c., P. 13. 1, 2; 18. 6; 20. 1; 24. 4; 25. 14; 26 (c). 4; 27 (a) (b). 6, 15; 29. 1, 6, &c. &c. 'universal standard,' P. 7. 13; 'to use a term in a physical sense,' P. 16. 5.

II. Notice however that abstract substantives, especially in -io, must now be used oftener, though they generally require a concrete appendage (e.g. rerum, corporis, animi) in the genitive, cf. 5. 3, 8, 15; cf. Hints, §§ 1 (c) and 28 (a). This half-way stage between the concrete and the pure abstract may be seen in P. 34. 7, humilitas animi se contrahentis. Cf. P. 2. 4, 5, 11, 18; 5. 3; 9. 3; 11. 4, 7; 13. 1, 2; 25. 15, 23, 26; 29. 4, 9, 13; 31. 21; 32. 6, 22; 34. 1, 23; 41. 6, 10.

The following version will illustrate fairly the tendencies of English and Latin in these respects:

Philosophical Prose.

lxvii

"There is something essentially congenial as food for the mind "in the study of natural science; and as we gaze at the skies on a "starry night, we have a sense of being raised above ourselves, a "feeling of expansion of soul, and of contempt for the petty trivia"lities of our life here in the thought of a heaven above. The mere effort to unravel the great mysteries of the world fills us "with pleasure."

66

Est enim animorum ingeniorumque naturale quoddam quasi pabulum consideratio contemplatioque naturæ: et, quoties cælum stellis distinctum nocte suspicimus, erigi et elatiores fieri videmur ; humana despicimus; cogitantesque supera atque cœlestia, haec nostra, ut exigua et minima, contemnimus. Indagatio ipsa rerum tum maximarum, tum etiam occultissimarum, habet oblectationem.

III. The names of sciences gradually assume in Cicero a more abstract shape, somewhat in the following order of development, rhetores, rhetorici, rhetorica, neut. pl., rhetorica (sing.), rhetorice. By the same steps we mount to logice, physice, dialectice (Cic.), mathematice (Sen.), astrologia (Cic.), astronomia (Sen.), poetica (or -e) or poesis, historia (Cic.), historice (Quint.), &c.; but in the majority of cases the English abstract will have to be rendered by a more concrete term, e.g. physici, disserendi ars, qui de vita ac moribus præcepta tradunt (moralists or moral science); vita eorum qui rempublicam capessunt (politics, political life); qui deorum naturam in dubium vocant, deos esse negant (Scepticism, Atheism); sententiæ eorum qui omnia ad utilitatem &c. revocant (Utilitarianism, expediency, selfishness). Cf. P. 6. 20-25; 37. 12 for 'Sculpture,' 'Painting,' 'Anger,' 'Joy,' &c.

IV. Generally speaking, English specific terms must be constantly referred back in Latin to their genus. As language progresses, every new species becomes a genus to some later subdivision or refinement. This is especially true of moral affections and mental operations which only gradually get to be discriminated. Hence translate our modern refinements by some more generic word in Latin. Cf. for instance in a dictionary the various English subdivisions comprehended under dolor (pain, grief, regret, trouble, distress, &c.); studium (zeal, devotion, interest, favour, good will, &c.); genus (class, category, genus, species, department, &c.); jus (law, right, privilege, title, &c.); sententia (sentiment, judgment, opinion, view, feeling, decision, vote); intellegentia (taste, discernment, understanding, insight, conception, &c.); exemplum (sample, draught, transcript, precedent, instance, case,

disposition, nature, frame, characteristic); officium (kind offices, services, calls, obligations, bonds, ties, duties); tempus (opportunity, crisis, circumstance, moment, minute, hour, day, season).

The various renderings of verbs should be studied similarly: e.g. do, habeo, adhibeo, fero, confero, refero, affero, exerceo, sequor, jaceo, desum, prosequor, versor, &c., and other nouns like vis, res, ratio, fides, judicium, voluntas, laus, sensus, facultas, fraus, fructus, gradus, locus, malum, nomen, &c.

Conversely, though more rarely, some English generic terms comprehend numerous species in Latin, e.g. law (fas et jus, jus, lex, edictum, rogatio, norma, conditio); form (forma, formula, regula, præscriptio, genus, species, exemplum (e.g. crudelitatis), tenor (vita); work (labor, studia, opus, opera, liber, &c.).

V. Similarly, constant practice in detecting and simplifying the various forms of metonymy, synecdoche, and metaphor that creep into language, and from long use impose upon us as proper simple names, will help us much in rendering English ideas in idiomatic Latin.

VI. Adjectives also that represent the condensation of abstract ideas and crystallization of thought must be disintegrated and expressed at length in elementary forms, e.g.

'Objective or Subjective existence' in opinione or in natura positum, situm: in nobis or extrinsecus: per se ipsos or externo pulsu. 'Absolute' (simpliciter, proprius, per se), and Relative' cum aliis, ceteris, comparatus, comparatione, comparando.

'Abstract, concrete:' infinita generis sine tempore, sine persona, quæstio; infinite de universo genere quærere, ponere, dicere, vel definite de singulis temporibus, hominibus, causis.

'Practical and theoretical:' nulla res est quæ non aut ad agendi aut ad cognoscendi vim rationemque referatur; vir qui in rebus et usu plus quam in studiis versatus est. 'Material and spiritual:' quæ ad vitæ usus ad corpus ad animum pertinent.

Very often such adjectives will not be expressed in Latin, e.g. usus stands for practical experience; ars, scientia, ratio for theoretic knowledge; subjective fancy is opinio; material gain quastus; or they will be represented by adverbs, e.g. 'comparative uncertainty' quodam modo dubium; 'absolute falsehood' plane fictum. Other instances will be found in Nägelsbach's Stilistik. For other differences of Idiom more particularly to be noticed in Philosophy, see General Hints, esp. §§ 1 (c-f), 2, 3, 5 and 33-35.

First Cause, Origin of Matter.. ..Cicero, Grotius, Mozley, Kant.

.Cicero, Bacon, Watts, Addison, Hobbes.

lxx

INDEX TO PREFATORY HINTS.

The Arabic numerals refer to the Sections of the General Hints and the other references to the pages.