Tacitus and Sallust.

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quam regularly; after quando, H. 37. 3 for quum; so Sallust; quatenus for quum; quin for quominus.

(b) Indicative in conditional apodosis, e. g. H. 25. 16—18.

(c) Free use of infinitive, e.g. of acc. c. infin. after impetrare, urgere, &c., cf. H. 33 (a). 5; of fut. infin. predicatively (cf. H. 21. 8); of the historic infinitive even with temporal cum (cf. H. 15 (b). 6; 33. 15, 21); and substantivally. frequently. Cf. H. 9 (b); 13 (b). 7, 20, &c.; 15 (a).

So Sallust still more

(d) Capricious use of hist. present mixed with aorists, imperfects and infinitives; and of indicative parenthetically in oratio obliqua. Cf. H. 14 (b); 23 (a) cf. (b); 33.

9.

=

Unusual use of participles, (a) aoristic present, e.g. retinens, H. 14. 15; (b) aorist perfect; (c) future part. of purpose, H. 1. 17 ; 5. 4; (d) participle for abstract verbal (cf. Agrippina tegens, Ann. IV. 12. 2 quod tegebat; rapta uxor). Cf. H. 3. 12; 11 (6). 13. 10. Unusual uses of prepositions and adverbs, esp. rursum, apud, circa, erga, juxta (adv.), simul, abusque, adusque. Cf. H. 33. 14; 35 (6). 6, 7; and see dictionaries. He is especially fond of adverbs in tim, e.g. raptim, P. 44 (b). 8. Cf. Sallust, H. 13. 6 catervatim confertim : so too he uses haud constantly (even with verbs): Sallust only with adv. adj. and participle.

B. RHETORICAL FIGURES.

1. Ellipse. (a) Of verb, esp. esse, dicere, sentire, agere, &c., i. indicative (not in present only). ii. subjunctive (rare elsewhere). iii. infinitive (e.g. fore, fuisse as well as esse).

(b) Of se with invicem, inter se, &c., and of pronouns in the accusative before infinitive. Cf. H. 6. 17; 22. 15; 37. 18.

(c) Of vir, &c., Blæsus multa dicendi arte, H. 11 (b). 3. Cf. H. 35 (b). 5—9. So Sallust, O. 41 (6). 12.

2. Anastrophe, e.g. umentia ultra, lacu in ipso, saxa inter et alia loca. So also with Conjunctions, as cum H. 8. 14. Cf. H. 15 (b). 2.

3. Asyndeton, e.g. arma equi; incursant, turbant; læta, tristia; so parentheses rarum, incertum an; as in H. 3. 15; 24. 1 ; 33 b. 2. Cf. P. 44 (b). 3. Cf. Sallust, H. 9 (b). 14, 17; 15 (a). 4, 7;

4. Zeugma, e.g. manus ac supplices voces tendens; and incoherent doublets like metum et discrimen, robur ac sedem, H. 17. 11, 15. Cf. H. 1. 15-16; 8. 13; 17. 2; 18. 10; 21. 12; 31. 5; 33 (a). 17; (b). 3. So Sallust, O. 41 (b). 2; H. 13 (a). 15—16; b. 22 and elsewhere freely. Cf. C. 1, p. lxiii. Constructions similarly as H. 16 (b). 12.

5. Inversions (Chiasmus), rare in Tacitus, commoner in Sallust, e.g. animo ignavus, procax ore; dissimulatione famæ, famam auxit. Cf. H. 4. 8 ; 5 (a). 11 ; 8. 6, 7 ; 26 (a). 7 ; 31. 7. But contrast 3. 10; 7. 9; 33 b. 11, &c. Cf. Sallust H. 12 (a). 4, 6; (b). 2, 14; 13 (a). 12.

6. Repetitions (antithetical or parallel), (Anaphora, &c.); non arma, non ordo, non consilium: absens accusatus, absens absolutus est. Chiefly in reported speeches, e.g. H. 6. 10; 7. 12; 10. 9, 10; 11 (b). 8; 21. 14; but also elsewhere, 33. 20. Cf. P. 42. 10; 44 (b). 7, 9. Sallust much more frequently, e.g. H. 13 (a). 8, 9, 11; b. 4. 7. Hendiadys, honore iudicioque; clamore et gaudio; tempus atque iter; famam et posteros. Cf. H. 1. 16; 6. 7; 26. 8.

8. Oxymoron, e.g. adroganti moderatione, and Alliteration, e.g. famam fatumque provocabat; cultu vultuque, cf. 30. 7, are rare figures. Cf. Sallust, O. 43. 10, 14, 17, who uses them oftener.

9. Metaphor and Simile mainly in verbs, e. g. spargere, vergere (of age or of time), induere, exuere, flammare, rumpere, exsolvere (venas, obsidionem), volvere, haurire (of perishing by water, fire, sword), illigare, &c. Cf. H. 3. 27; 14. 16; 15 (b). 6; 21. 8 ; 30. 25. So Sallust, cf. O. 43. 2, 4, 8. Not very common in either. 10. Periphrasis, esp. for

evening, &c.

suicide and death: or approach of

(a) death; obire, oppetere, concedere, excedere, &c.

(b) suicide; (simple) so vita privare; finem vitæ sibi ponere; vim sibi afferre; (special) venas exsolvere, resolvere, interrumpere, &c.; ferro incumbere, se ipsum ferro transigere, suo ictu mortem invenire, &c.; egestate cibi perimi, vitam abstinentia finire; aqua et igni arcere, prohibere, interdicere. Cf. H. 3. 27, 34; 7. 26; 14. 20, 25; 23. 6,7; 30. 20.

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(c) vesperascente die H. 7. 22; obscuro adhuc cœptæ lucis 23. 1. 11. Personification. Hiems, nox, annus, &c. Cf. also æstate adulta; vestigia morientis libertatis; seditionis ora vocesque; fama H. 3. 26; 6. 2; nox 8. 22.

12. Synecdoche and Metonymy are common, e.g. matrimonia for conjuges, vulnera for ictus or ensis. Cf. 3. 27; 10. 1; 17. 11, 15.

C. ANTI-CICERONIAN TENDENCIES (IN STRUCTURE OF PERIOD).

1. Avoidance of symmetry and exact antithesis. Cf. A3. 3, C. 4. (a) consules patres eques; Medis et Bactriano. Cp. sociorum et Lati O. 41 (b). 8. H. 1. 16. (b) par ingenio, morum diversus. (c) palam laudares, secreta male audiebant; multis palam, pluribus occultis. (d) pars mora-pars festinans. (e) trahens-interpretando. (f) partem publicandam pars ut relinqueretur censuerat. (y) cum alii in Palatium redirent, plerique Rostra occupanda censerent. (h) altitudine animi—an compererat. (i) crimina et innoxios. (j) vir facundus et pacis artibus. (k) miseria tolerantur, felicitate corrumpimur. Cf. H. 6. 2; 8. 16; 14. 12; 26 (b). 9-10, 14, 17, 26, 33; 30, 23.

2. Avoidance of musical rhythm and parallelism; use of doublets irregularly instead of regular triplets, &c., or 'four-beat' clauses in antithesis. The extent to which these two points are pushed, will best be realized by comparing the amount of symmetry and antithetical parallelism found even in Sallust; see O. 43. 17; H. 9. 17; 13 (a); 14 (b). 6—7; 15. 4-8, or by comparing reported speeches in Tacitus with his own narration, e. g. H. 6. 3—13; 10. 9; 11 (b). 2-10; 21. 12-25.

3. The regular complete Period generally avoided; shorter periods not uncommon: but abrupt collocation preferred. Contrast H. 24 and 25; 1 and 23; &c. Where the verb would naturally close the sentence it is purposely misplaced. Cf. 14. 13, 19. Cf. Sallust, 12 a; 13 b.

4. Ablative absolute added at end of sentence to supply cause, and often as = a new co-ordinate clause. ne eques quidem institit fusis imbribus et propinqua nocte; servaverat non clementia,

the accusative is added at the end as a new clause. Cf. H. 4. 8. So Sallust, O. 41 b. 11.

5. Other substitutes for verbal clauses:

(a) Use of adjective in apposition or substantive in -tor, &c. Cf. H. 4. 8; 14. 12, 13. So Sallust, H. 13 b. 12.

(b) Use of past participle freely in accusative, &c. for clause, as 26 b. 27 and of the participles as above, A3. 9.

VI. SALLUST. Sallust's style differs from that of Tacitus mainly in the degree in which these main characteristics are affected, being somewhat less poetical in diction, more rhetorical, and less systematically anti-Ciceronian, otherwise much the same; less condensed, but yet brief, sententious, rather abrupt, full of new phrases, Græcisms, and Archaisms especially borrowed from Cato the Elder (verba antiqui multum furate Catonis Crispe, Mart.). He was obscurus and audax in translationibus (cf. Sueton. Gramm. 10), elegans and novator verborum (Gell.). Seneca says of him and his period amputatæ sententiæ verba ante expectationem cadentia et obscura brevitas fuere pro cultu; and Quintilian, while warning orators to avoid the style in popular speaking, calls it illa Sallustiana brevitas qua nihil apud vacuas et eruditas aures potest esse perfectius. His style and other historical characteristics were imitations of Thucydides, especially his psychological treatment of his subject, his impartial criticisms, and the frequent, vigorous, and characteristic speeches interwoven in the work.

The Jugurtha seems an improvement on the Catilina in style, as probably the Histories (a continuation of Sisenna's work) were on that of the Jugurtha. Had we the entire work instead of a few vigorous fragments, mainly speeches, we should probably find that Tacitus was as largely indebted to him for language, as he doubtless was to others for subject-matter and ideas.

Perhaps the most striking feature of his style is vivid description and constant use of the Historic Infinitive, cp. H. 13 and 15. His frequent use of certain prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions, apud, igitur, ceterum, modo, simul, interim &c., may also be marked (cf. H. 12 (b). 1, 7; 13 (a). 1, (b). 13; 15. 1), as also his use of archaic words and forms of words. For more direct imitations of some of these points by Tacitus cf. H. 15 a, and 15 b; 9 (b) and 8.

PHILOSOPHICAL PROSE.

N.B. The references in brackets are to the number and line of the English Extracts, the others to the Latin. O. Oratorical. H. Historical. P. Philosophical.

Our only good models for Essays and Philosophical writing are Cicero and Cicero's admirers, viz. Quintilian, the younger Pliny, and also (if some few Post-Augustan uses be avoided) Seneca. These represent a round, fluent, semi-oratorical style, not unlike that of most modern English essayists. Latin philosophy however, being generally cast in the dialogue form (perhaps purposely by Cicero, to suit his own oratorical language), admitted more rhetorical figures and less of archaic and poetical diction than Latin historical writing, representing in both respects a somewhat ornate conversational tone. Hence we may get one or two general rules.

A. Avoid all archaic and poetical words and constructions and tropes also as a rule, though similes are allowable. Cf. P. 6. 6, 9; 18. 6; 23 (b); 24 (b). 19, (c) 9; 27 (a); 29. 10. Hyperbaton is also common. Cf. General Hints, § 36.

B. Use freely certain Rhetorical figures, far oftener than in English, e.g.

Anaphora and Repetitions of all sorts, e.g. P. 3. 2, 4—7, 1014, 29-32; 10. 4, 5; 13. 24-26; 23. 1-4; 24 (6). 1-8; 32. 2, 3, &c. &c.

Asyndeton and oftener Polysyndeton, P. 8. 5, 6; 18. 14-16; 20 (6). 1—12; 23 (a). 2, 8; 28. 2, 3.

Antithesis (especially antithetical repetition), P. 8. 3, 4; 23 (b). 10; 36 (b); 45 (b). 1—5.

Chiasmus and Parallelism, P. 20 (6). 2—4; 23 (b). 1; 24 (6). 3; 25. 20, 28-31; 29. 5, 6, &c.

&c.

Interrogatio especially; e.g. P. 2. 2, 26; 3. 28—32; 10. 1—7,

Exclamatio, P. 9. 1; 11. 15; 28. 5; 32. 11; 45 (b). 5.

Apostrophe occasionally, P. 3. 28; 13. 2, 9; 14. 2; and Communicatio, 9; 14; 19; 32. 4-14.