consisting of four rooms on the ground floor and five above, with ample cellaring and also stallage and necessary buildings outside. They are substantially constructed of brick faced with stucco, which is the style of building common to the locality. It is a fixed principle that each house shall have an ample piece of land for use as a garden-the savings bank of the "small man"—and for the keeping of either pigs, goats, a horse, or a cow, and this land varies in size from a quarter to half an acre. That this arrangement promotes thrift and encourages in the tenant or owner settled habits will readily be believed, and these are the ends in view. So important does Dr. von Bodelschwingh regard the attachment of land to each house that even when the deeds of ownership have been handed over it is not permissible to alienate any portion of the ground. The cost of a house with land varies from £280 to £500 and £600, though even the latter sum is exceeded in several cases. The cost of the land varies from one sixth to one quarter of that of the building, but the price of land has substantially increased since the first houses were built, and the result is seen in a tendency to curtail somewhat the plot which goes with the smaller houses. The price is now about 1s. per square yard, while formerly it was only from 6d. to 9d.

In deciding on tenants-for there are always more applicants than houses-preference is given to men with large families, and no question is asked either as to politics or religion. A tenant is given four and a half years in which to decide whether he will purchase. Should he elect to become owner he is expected to pay a deposit of from 300 to 500 marks (£15 to £25), which may not be borrowed money, and this bears interest at 3 per cent. from the day of payment. He must then pay yearly 3 per cent. of the purchase price as rent and 2 per cent. by way of redemption (both of which sums also bear interest of 3 per cent.), with 5 per cent. of the rent to a reserve fund, payments being made monthly. When the purchaser has paid a third of the cost price he receives the title of the house, with the reservation that in the event of the desire to sell out, the association may exercise the right of pre-emption at the original price, with addition for improvements and deduction for wear and tear. This right of pre-emption was not originally contemplated, but it happened that in the early years of the association's existence sales were effected which brought undesirable tenants; hence the stipulation. It is held, viewing the matter broadly, to be in the interest of the working classes themselves that this right should be reserved by the association. In the first place, the whole object of the association would be defeated if the houses built under its auspices became objects of speculation, for every re-sale at a higher figure would mean a higher rent. But, further, it is contended that it may often prove very advantageous to an owner to be able to dispose of his house without resort to the usual processes. A displacement of industry might render it necessary for him to "follow the flag" at short notice, and the disposal of his property would probably be a

matter of urgency. But the very cause of his removal might under ordinary circumstances depreciate the value of his house were he compelled to sell. It is true that the association, in claiming the right to buy back at the original price, has a chance of benefiting by the transaction, but on the other hand it is exposed to an equal chance of loss; for it makes itself responsible for the full price paid, whether the current value of house property has declined or not. In the ordinary course a house is only freed from debt after a long term of years-about thirty-though it is open to the buyer to pay off his loan sooner if he be so minded.

To show how the instalment system works I give the payments made on two houses which I inspected when at Bielefeld last summer. House A.-This house was built in 1888 and had 1,500 square yards of land. Its accommodation is: downstairs-a small shop (for the owner was a master baker), with tiled vestibule, the living room, the kitchen, and two bedrooms; upstairs-three bedrooms; cellar-bakery and various storage room; outside-stalls for horse, &c.

Paid yearly as rent 3 per cent. of cost price 349.93 marks.

House B.-This house was likewise built in 1888, and it had 930 square yards of land. The accommodation was four rooms below and five above, with cellaring and wood-house.

Paid yearly as rent 3 per cent. on above price 230.70 marks.

The purchaser of this house was much dissatisfied with the preemption clause, and intended to make a strong effort to get it cancelled.

Various requirements, such as are generally found in a lease, are made as to the up-keep of a house, and there are reasonable regulations

as to the uses to which the houses may be put (sub-letting is allowed subject to approval), with other conditions intended to serve moral and sanitary interests.

At the time of my visit twenty of the houses were in full possession of the owners and not a single house was simply rented. Seventy applications for houses were outstanding.

The association has up to date spent some £30,000 in the building of working men's houses. It may be asked-where does it procure the necessary funds? They are raised by loans.

(1) Partly from the State funds available under the Prussian Peasant Proprietary Act (Rentengütergesetz) of July 7th, 1891. This Act has been interpreted as permitting the advance of money for the purchase of house and land not alone to agriculturists, but to artisans. and working men of all kinds who, though following trade or industry, may be able and wishful to cultivate a piece of land; and the Westphalian Commission for the carrying out of the law has agreed to experiment in this direction in concert with the Arbeiterheimverein. The State Bank established under the Act holds a mortgage to the extent of three-fourths of the property value, and the association a second mortgage to the extent of one-fifth of the remainder in consideration of its advances.

(2) Loans are received from the funds which have accumulated under the Old Age Insurance Act. Nearly all the old age insurance institutions have, indeed, advanced considerable sums for the building of working men's dwellings. In Hanover more than £316,000 has been so lent, in Schleswig-Holstein £45,000, in the Rhine Province £35,000, and in Saxony about £20,000. So enthusiastic has the Hanover institution been on this housing question that it has itself been the means of establishing a large number of building societies to which it lends money for the erection of working men's dwellings, in addition to which it lends direct to several hundred insured people. With the £316,000 which it has advanced some nine hundred houses have been built, providing accommodation for ten thousand people. (3) Other money is obtained on loan from private sources. Not only has the association done a good work in Bielefeld, but it has carried on a successful propaganda in various States of Germany, chiefly through the efforts of Dr. Bodelschwingh and the zealous. General Secretary, Herr Lieber (to both of whom I am indebted for the information, freely and courteously given at my visit, which is contained in these notes). It has also enlisted high and influential support for its views and endeavours, and its members at the present time include the Emperor William (who continues the patronage given by his father and grandfather), nineteen heads of princely houses, one Government, one Chief District President, fifteen Prefects, twenty-five towns, five old age and invalidity insurance institutions, two philanthropic building societies, two religious societies, one savings bank, and 524 individual members of all ranks.

No. 35.-VOL. IX.

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No less an economic authority than Dr. Schäffle also warmly commends its work, in perfect accord with his published utterance"The housing question involves far higher national interests than does even the universal provision of necessary sustenance in the event of worklessness by means of sickness, accident and old age insurance." Dr. von Bodelschwingh, however, goes further upon this question than the association of his founding. He advances the demand that legislative measures should be taken to afford urban workmen the opportunity of living outside the towns in which they are employed-special and convenient railway conveyance being established for the purpose-so that they may be able to obtain housing suited in extent and character to the cultivation of a healthy family life, land being added as a matter of course for gardening and agricultural purposes. His ideal is an independent house for every married working man-no barrack system of so-called "model-dwellings "-and this house owned by its occupant. Let this man be made his own landlord, and a good deal will have been done to make him a contented citizen, so far as that is humanly possible. Need it be said, the Social Democratic party does not view this experiment with any favour? The Socialist leaders desire social discontent; the cause lives upon it; it is the most important element in the party's "material." I was assured that many of the working men owners of the Bielefeld colony were formerly active Social Democrats, but they are such no longer. There is sound philosophy in that remark of a Times leader-writer two or three years ago-a man will as a rule cease to talk about Collectivism directly he has begun to collect a little on his own account. WILLIAM HARBUTT DAWSON

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF WOMEN.

Of the many whose attention was attracted to the meetings of the Women's International Congress last June, few, it is safe to say, were aware of the nature of the body which had convened that Congress. Yet the history and constitution of a society which aims at organising the women workers of all nations, on no less broad a platform than the "application of the Golden Rule to society, custom and law," is not without interest if only as an experiment. In 1888 some American women convened, at Washington, a representative assembly of delegates from as many countries as possible, to consider the possibility of organising International and National Councils of Women. Their purpose is explained in the preamble to the Constitution. "We, women of all Nations, sincerely believing that the best good of humanity will be advanced by greater unity of thought, sympathy, and purpose, and that an organised movement of women will best conserve the highest good of the family and of the State, do hereby band ourselves

in a confederation of workers to further the application of the Golden Rule to society, custom and law." For this purpose the International Council was established.

"(a) To provide a means of communication between women's organisations in all countries.

"(b) To provide opportunities for women to meet together from allparts of the world to confer upon questions relating to the welfare of the commonwealth and the family."

It was arranged that the International Council should meet every five years, when the President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Corresponding Secretary and Recording Secretary were to be elected; these officers with the Presidents of the National Councils were to form the Executive Committee. The countries where no National Council had been formed were to be represented by honorary Vice-Presidents "while distinguished women of any country, whose influence and support would be valuable to the International Council, were to be invited by the President and Executive to join the Council as individual members." The National Councils were, in their turn, to be formed of local councils, societies, institutions, &c. Mrs. Fawcett was elected as the first President of the International Council. Only the United States formed a National Council on that occasion, Miss Frances Willard being elected President. For five years after 1888, "the International Council, as such, did not make any definite move forward." The next event in its history occurred in 1893, when the Women's Branch of the World's Congresses held in connection with the Chicago World's Fair invited the International Council of Women to hold its quinquennial meeting in Chicago. On that occasion women workers belonging to thirty different nationalities were present. The Countess of Aberdeen was elected President. At the close" the International Council consisted of two federated National Councils, five elected officers, and twenty-eight Vice-Presidents, pledged to carry on the work and spread the ideals of the International Council throughout the world." The result is to be seen in the late Congress-the third event in the history of the International Council. The National Councils of the United States, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Denmark, New South Wales, Holland, New Zealand and Tasmania, were represented by their Presidents, while the women workers of Finland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Russia, Austria, France, Norway, Victoria, South Australia, West Australia, Queensland, Cape Colony, Argentine Republic, Palestine, China, and Persia, were represented by Honorary Vice-Presidents. The National Council of France, it is interesting to note, formed as early as 1892, has ceased to exist. It decided to have no President; "the result seems to have been that the Secretary became such a very autocratic ruler that she declined to summon any meetings whatsoever." A Council was not formed in England till 1897, when the National