its production, and towards lessening its price. Here, however, as everywhere, the harmony of interests is maintained by means of balancing attractions - the downward movement thus indicated, being more than counteracted by an upward and opposing force.

Improvement in the modes of cultivation, tends to raise the price of land, while depressing that of corn. Improved methods of converting corn into meal, tend to raise the price of corn, while lowering that of flour. Improvement in culinary processes tends to raise the price of flour, while depressing that of bread. Improvement in the mode of converting food into iron, gold, lead, or any other of the commodities required by the food producer, tends to raise the price of bread, while depressing that of the commodities whose production is thus facilitated. Each and every commodity and thing, is, thus, in daily subjection to attractive and counter-attractive forces-corresponding, precisely, with those which govern the movements of the several portions of our solar system. At each and every stage of progress, the land approximates more nearly to the corn, the corn to the flour, the flour to the bread, and the bread to the iron- the ultimate effect of all these changes being, an ever-growing approximation of that first of all raw materials, the land, to the last and most remote of the finished commodities, which the earth and its products can be made to yield.

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That land embracing, as it does, all the elements of production-rises in price, as its materials are utilized by converting skill and power, is a truth so obvious, as to need no argument. That human labor rises with it, is a fact, the proof of which may be found in all advancing communities. Belonging to the same category-being, alike, the ultimate raw material of all production neither of these is liable to be cheapened by improvement in the modes of their production. Subject to no counterattractive forces, they must rise with every improvement in economic progressthe most highly finished products of human industry experiencing a corresponding fall, and for the reason, that they cannot be made the raw material of any further conversion, and cannot, therefore, rise by aid of any improvement whatsoever.

Man and land stand, thus, at one extremity of the scale, and

the commodities and things of highest finish, at the other-the former steadily increasing in value as compared with the latter, while the latter as regularly decline in value, when compared with them. The earth, as man's throne, thus rises with its sovereign its services, and those of all its parts, descending, and so continuing to do, until they bow to his feet.

It may, however, be further asked: "Might not ameliorations of cultivation take place, unaccompanied by improvement in the conversion of its products, and would they not, in that case, be attended by reduction in the prices of the raw material of human food?" Were that possible, such would certainly be the case. It is, however, no more possible, than it would be, that the attractive power of the sun should increase, leaving unaffected the motions of the various bodies by which he is attended in his course. Agricultural improvement waits upon, and never precedes, industrial development-the application of new manures, the discovery of improved modes of applying power, and the invention of machines, being consequent upon that diversification of pursuits, by means of which, the various human faculties are stimulated into action, and men are fitted for that association with their fellow-men, required for enabling them to direct the forces of nature to their service.

The tendency towards approximation of prices, is in the direct ratio of the growth of the power of association, and of the rapidity of circulation between the land and the corn, the corn and the meal, the meal and the bread, the bread and the metals -resulting from the near approach of consumers and producers. Circulation becomes more rapid, as the attractive and counterattractive forces increase in their intensity- the law, in virtue of which, Venus moves through her orbit at a rate so much more rapid than that of Mars, or Jupiter, being precisely the same with that which governs the societary movement.

§ 5. The conclusions at which we now arrive are—

That, with the development of agricultural science, consequent upon the increased diversification of employment, and augmented power of association, the farmer obtains more from his lands, while the prices of his products tend to rise:

That, simultaneously therewith, the prices of manufactured. commodities tend to fall; and that he not only obtains more of

them in exchange for every bushel of his corn, but he has more of the corn to sell:

That, with every stage of progress in that direction, commerce increases, with daily diminution in the power of the trader, and constant increase in the facility of association and combination — in the development of individuality in the feeling of responsibility and in the power of further progress:

That, on the other hand, as agriculture ceases to be a science, the farmer obtains less from his land, while prices tend to fall:

That, simultaneously therewith, the prices of manufactured commodities tend to rise; and that, thus, the farmer obtains less in exchange for a bushel of corn, while having fewer bushels to sell:

That every step in that direction is attended with decline of commerce, with increase in the power of the trader, and constant decline in the facility of association in the individuality of the people in the feeling of responsibility—and in the power of further progress.

In the former case, there is an increased development of the treasures of the earth; the foundations of society are sunk daily deeper; its movement becomes more regular; civilization advances; and men become from year to year more happy and more free. In the latter one, the power to command the various natural forces steadily declines; man becomes more nomadic and unsteady; the movement of society becomes from year to year less regular; civilization declines; and men become from year to year less happy and less free.

§ 6. The policy of the United States looks in the latter of these directions in that which is indicated by the political economists of the British school. The object that by that country is sought to be attained, is that of lowering the price of all the raw materials of manufacture-wool, corn, and labor. Its results, as thus far exhibited, are found in the fact, that pauperism has grown with the growth of the power of the people of England to command the gratuitous services of nature. As exhibited throughout the American Union, they are found in the steady decrease in the prices of all their staple products, and equally steady increase in the quantity thereof required to be given to the mining

and manufacturing communities of the world for the products of their respective soils.*

They are further seen in diminution in the return to agricultural labor-proceeding, as it does, pari passu with the decline of price; in the growing tendency to emigration, and consequent increase in the obstacles to association and combination; in the growing power of the trader and transporter to direct the affairs of the community; and in the many other phenomena to which the attention of the reader has been called each and every of which, if occurring in any other country, would be regarded by intelligent Americans as evidence of declining civilization.

The occurrence of all these facts, is due to a single great and fundamental cause. that cause being to be found in the unceasing exhaustion of the powers of the soil, consequent upon the

For the changes in the quantity of flour and cotton required to be given in exchange for the various metals, see ante, page 204.

The recent publication of the prices at which wheat has been received at Rensselaer Manor, Albany, in the payment of rent, enables the author now to show what have been the changes in the price of the raw material of flour; as follows:

As in the case of flour, the highest price is found in the period from 1811 to 1815, when there existed little intercourse with foreign countries. From that date, the tendency has been almost steadily downward-the only exceptions to the rule, at all important, having been in the time of wild speculation of the free-trade period which preceded the crash of 1840; and in that of the Irish famine.

Turning to the tobacco trade, we obtain similar results. From 1816 to 1820, the fall was very great, although its extent cannot be precisely ascertained. Low as was the price in the period from 1821 to 1825-the earliest years given in the tables furnished by the Treasury-the descent has since been almost constant the only exception having been in the speculative period above referred to, as here is shown:

1821-1825...... average export price, per hhd. $73.11

More than twice the number of hogsheads is now required to pay for any given quantity of the several metals, that would have been needed forty years since.

exportation of all its products in their rudest state. Desiring to find a remedy, we must seek for it in measures directed not only to the maintenance, but to the increase, of those powers, and to the creation of a scientific agriculture. That, as we know, is the last of all the pursuits of man to attain development; and for the reason, that for the production of a skilful agriculturist there is required a wider extent of knowledge than is needed in any other branch of science. That that knowledge may be obtained, men must associate and combine together-exchanging ideas and services. The more perfect the facility of association, the more rapid will be the development of the human powers, and of the powers of the earth; the more instantly will the demand for mental and physical power follow upon its production; the more rapid will be the growth of wealth; and the higher will be the aspirations of men. That association may exist, and that it may increase, there must be diversity in the modes of employment, and in the demands for the faculties of men.

§ 7. In what manner do employments become diversified? What are the measures by which in other countries that effect has been produced? These questions being answered, we obtain a guide for future action-learning how commerce may be made to grow-how mind may be developed-how the powers of the earth may be stimulated into action - how wealth may be increased — and how man can be made more moral and more free. Seeking the answer, we find that the growth of freedom in England was coincident with the adoption of measures, having for their object the placing of the manufacturer by the side of the agriculturist; and that at no period was the advance so great as in the latter half of the last century, when a market was so rapidly being created on the land for all its products. Looking to France, we see that man has greatly advanced in wealth, strength, and power under the system introduced by Colbert- that which looked to bringing the artisan to the side of the farmer, while at the same time diversifying the pursuits of the latter by naturalizing various products of foreign climes. By help of that policy, French commerce, both domestic and foreign, is increasing with a rapidity that is wonderful; and the country is, from year to year, more and more placing itself in the lead of Europe. Comparing