MONTHLY REVIEW OF LITERATURE.

SCIENCE.

The Philosophy of Instinct and Reason. By J. STEVENSON BUSHNAN, M. D., F. L. Š. Edinburgh, A. and C. Black; London, Longman and Co.

We cannot but congratulate the literary and scientific public on the addition to their stores of Dr. J. S. Bushnan's work, which will be found well worthy of their serious consideration. The author professes philosophical opinions with regard to natural theology and natural phenomena, which differ entirely from those suggested by Lord Brougham and other eminent writers of the past and present century. He makes use, however, of the best mode of imparting to his readers the force of his arguments, by avoiding all metaphysical sophisms, and by adopting in their stead physiological demonstrations, facts, inductions, and deductions. We are of opinion that he possesses a vast knowledge both of the human and animal anatomy and physiology, and that his researches on both those useful branches have been extensive and successful. According to the author of this truly interesting treatise we have imbibed from the vulgar, or rather from philosophers, the prejudice, First, that the lower animals do not require reason, and therefore do not possess it; but are only guided by definite instincts. Secondly, that man, being destitute of any such definite instincts to guide him, and requiring a full share of reason, at once to direct him to the accomplishment of his wishes, and to minister to the other and more important ends for which he was created, has been, on these accounts, endowed with this faculty. This, however, must not be the legitimate way of disposing of the question; and we are not to assume that brutes are actuated by instinct alone, and man by reason, if we wish to make a good use of our reasoning faculty. We ought to consider with a patient scrutiny what are the conditions of an instinctive, and what those of a reasonable, action, whether of brutes or of man, and then draw our conclusion. Here we will let the author speak for himself.

"As it appears to us, then, an instinctive action is one which, however directly it may minister to some important end, is performed without any consciousness, on the part of the agent, of that end; which is effected as perfectly the first time it is attempted as at any subsequent period, and which is quite unsusceptible of any adaptation to particular emergencies: while a reasonable action, on the contrary, is one which always implies a consciousness, on the part of the agent, of the end in view; which becomes only progressively perfect, and which is capable of being variously modified according to existing circumstances.

"Now, can it be reasonably doubted, but that many of the actions, both of the lower tribes of animals and of man, are referable respectively to both these heads; or affirmed, that there exists any primary and essential distinction, on the one hand, between the principle which directs the young chick to pick up grain the instant it is hatched, and that which prompts the new-born infant to draw milk from the nipple of the mother the first time it is applied to it; or, on the other, between the principle which actuates an old bird in its manifest stratagems, either in the pursuit of advantage, or the shunning of danger, and that which guides an experienced man, in his various measures

towards either the attainment of good or the avoidance of evil? In the two former cases, there is no consciousness on the part of the animal that the aliment taken is to repair the waste of the body; the action of taking it is performed as perfectly the first time it is attempted, as it could have been after a long course of experience and instruction; and it is invariably the same. In the two latter, on the contrary, the animal has a distinct consciousness of the object in view; he becomes, by experience, better and better acquainted with the most effectual means of attaining this object; and he can change or modify his measures, in proportion as such a change or modification seems requisite. We conclude, therefore, that, while some of the actions of the inferior tribes of animals are instinctive, others spring from reason; and again, that, while some of the actions of man are the result of reason, others spring from instinct, the only difference appearing to consist in this, that, in brutes, the great majority of the actions are instinctive, while, in man, the great majority of the actions are rational; and that, in him, the faculty of reason very far surpasses, not in kind, but in degree, the same faculty in brutes."

With regard to instinct and reason, and their natural difference, the author remarks, that by some philosophers it has been believed that there is no real distinction between them-that instinct is but an inferior degree of reason, or, what amounts to the same thing, that reason is but a superior degree of instinct, that, according to Hume, the experimental reasoning itself, on which the whole conduct of life depends, is nothing but a species of instinct or mechanical power that acts in us unknown to ourselves, and in its chief operations is not directed by any such relations or comparisons of ideas, as are the proper objects of our intellectual faculties; that, according to Darwin, all the instinctive actions are nothing but intellectual operations lower or higher, according to the less or more elevated rank of the animal. However, as it would be almost impossible to impart to our readers a just estimate of the judicious views and interesting facts put forth by Dr. S. S. Bushnan, in illustration and confirmation of his philosophical tenets in a short review of his work, we must recommend to them its perusal, certain as we are that they will be highly pleased with the style and reasoning of the author, even when they must differ from him in his opinion.

The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise. A Fragment. By CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ. 8vo. pp. 242. Murray.

ON reading the title of the present Fragment of Professor Babbage, we were at first surprised; but on perusing the preface we cannot impute, either to the author, or to the publisher, any improper motive. The work is divided into fourteen chapters, which are followed by an appendix containing thirteen notes. Professor Babbage has been led to publish his fragment in order to promote the object of the late Earl of Bridgewater, who, by his will and tes tament, invested in the public funds 8000l., and directed that this sum should be employed for the writing, printing, and publishing of works "On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation." We concur with the author, "that the publication of the well-paid-for Bridgewater Treatises has not fully answered either the wishes of the testator, or the expectation of the public," and we are glad that a man who "belongs to no profession in which he can hope for advancement, if he successfully advocates one side of the question, or in which his prospects can be injured by candidly stating any arguments on the other," has spontaneously undertaken to support that great basis which precedes all relation, without the certainty of reaping a large pecuniary reward. Mr. Babbage is already well known as a mathematician; but by the present volume he will acquire the reputation of a sound natural philosopher, and his work will be highly interesting to all those who, being unbiassed by any prejudices, like to reason with a man who, fully convinced of the truth he advocates, endeavours to convince his readers by argument and deduction.

The Progress of Creation considered with reference to the Present Condition, of the Earth. By MARY ROBERTS. Smith, Elder, and Co.

In the present state of society at large, when the torch of knowledge has illuminated the dark abodes of superstition and prejudice, we must not conceal from the authoress of this religious and educational book our disapprobation of her opinions, "that the heavens and earth were finished, and all the bost of them, in six days, and that no theory, however plausible, can be admitted in opposition to the Divine Record." We are convinced that, notwithstanding her piety and devotion, she could not be much longer so blind if, unbiassed by her former prejudices, she would consult the holy writ as commented on by the most learned and religious interpreters of ancient and modern Christianity. After having thus candidly addressed a friendly admonition to the authoress, we think it our duty now to speak of her work, which is composed with much industry and skill, and contains some very interesting observations with regard to creation, and not a few striking specimens of her taste and talent wherever her imagination is not shackled by religious prejudices. The engravings which adorn this, in all respects, handsome little volume are well executed, and are representations of the most entertaining and useful subjects.

An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of Railways. By GEORGE GODWIN, JUNIOR. 8vo. pp. 45. Weale.

OUR readers must be well aware that we feel a great interest in the success of railways; and, although our voice has been raised more than once to condemn the many absurd speculations that have been set afloat by mere adventurers-schemes whose nature barely admits the possibility of their adoption even at an extravagant scale of expenditure, we always desire to show a disposition favourable to all such as regard the railroad system in a practical utilitarian point of view, and we are happy to say that Mr. Godwin is one of these. Considering the introduction of railways to be of essential service to the commercial and agricultural interests of the country, and conceiving also that an increased facility of communication will contribute to the moral and intellectual improvement of the whole nation, we feel it a duty to give some account of this short but useful statement of the definite advantage derivable from railroads. Only a hundred and thirty years ago a journey of forty miles occupied fourteen hours; and about fifty years back the journey to Birmingham was not accomplished in less than forty-two hours, whereas with our improved coaches on improved roads it is performed in eleven hours, and when the railroad comes into operation, will take little more than five hours; so that with the power now thought attainable in this—the infant state of railroad communication, the speed is more than eight times what it was in 1783:-in other words the distance between London and Birmingham is not (or rather, will not be) more than one-eighth of its distance fifty-three years ago. So much for the improvement of roads :-but Mr. Godwin will speak more to the purpose, if allowed to explain himself in his own words :"For two or three hundred years, then, the wisest amongst our forefathers have laboured to facilitate communication between the various parts of a country. They have drained fens, levelled hills, thrown bridges over rivers, and filled up valleys, in the face of a continued and resolute opposition, Shall we then-who justly boast of our advancement in science, our improvement of the arts (an advancement, and an improvement, too, which but for their labours we could not have made),-shall we do less? or have we actually progressed so far that our ways do not need mending? Surely not: nor will we suppose, that those who now laugh at and ridicule the petitions against the stage coaches, and against the extension of the turnpike roads, will oppose

increased facilities for the transit of those coaches; or, indeed, will fail to as sist in the application of our present scientific knowledge to render greater the usefulness of roads and promote rapid intercourse.

"We think that no demonstration can be needed to prove that a wheel will roll over a smooth bar of iron much easier than it will move on a loose stony road; to say so, indeed-as a road increases in goodness in proportion as it is hard and smooth-is only asserting that a good road is better than a bad one. A railway (for so, we know, a road, provided with two bars of iron for this purpose, would be called) is merely an improved road; and the step from Macadamised ways to railways is not so great as it is from the roads in which Prince George stuck fast in 1703 to the Macadamised roads of our times.

"From an early period railways of wood have been used, to facilitate the transport of coals and metals from the mine to the vessels by which they were to be conveyed to their destination; and even an iron railway was used for that purpose at Colebrook Dale as early as 1767. In 1805 steam power seems to have been first applied on railways, for the transport of passengers and goods from Darlington to Stockton; and at that time the maximum of speed attained was about eight miles an hour. It was not, however, till 1830, when a trial of several locomotive engines was made on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (that proud specimen of modern power and skill), that the incredible speed of transport which might be attained on Railways, and the vast advantages which would result to society from their introduction, first glimmered even on the scientific world. Before the construction of that work the transit of goods from Manchester to Liverpool (which is the port whence is shipped a large portion of the goods made at Manchester, and from which, in return, that town receives the raw materials to be worked upon) occupied by canal about thirty-six hours. By means of the Railway the time is lessened to one hour and three quarters, and the cost reduced, both for passengers and goods, nearly fifty per cent.; in consequence of which, in the carriage of cotton alone, 20,000l. annually have been saved to the manufacturers. Garden produce and milk, which before had no market, are now, by means of the Railway, cheaply and quickly transported to places where they are needed, and become of value; and new sources of wealth and incitements to industry are thus opened to the poor inhabitants of the interior of the country. Coal-pits have been sunk; manufactories established on the line; and much inferior land (in consequence of the facility of transport for the produce, and the ease, too, with which manure can be obtained) has been taken into cultivation: even Chat-Moss, a wild and dreary bog, through which, for some distance, the Manchester Railway passes, and where before nothing had been grown, now presents patches of wheat and comfortable residences, t

"If the true criterion of distance be time,'-and who can doubt it ?—the port of Liverpool and the manufacturing town of Manchester are now hardly other than one place; and we will mention a circumstance which occurred not long since, to show the immediate convenience and advantage of the railway to the inhabitants individually, independently of the great benefits which

In 1703, when Prince George of Denmark went from Windsor to Petworth to meet Charles III. of Spain, it appears that the journey, which is a distance of about forty miles, occupied fourteen hours, althongh those who travelled it did not get out, save when they were overturned or stuck fast in the mire, until they reached their destination. "We were thrown but once, indeed, in going," says the relator; "but his Highness's body coach would have suffered very much if the nimble boors of Sussex had not frequently poised it, or supported it with their shoulders, from Godalming almost to Petworth. The last nine miles of the way cost us six hours to conquer them."

+Chat-Moss was formerly let for about 1s. 6d. per acre (peat only was obtained from it); it now lets for 30s. The value of land in the neighbourhood of the Railway is said to have doubled since its construction. The same effect has taken place on the Darlington road.

all derive from improvements tending to lessen the cost of production. A gentleman went to Liverpool in the morning, purchased, and took back with him to Manchester, 150 tons of cotton, which he sold, and afterwards obtained an offer for a similar quantity. He went again; and, actually, that same evening delivered the second quantity in Manchester, "having travelled 120 miles in four separate journeys, and bought, sold, and delivered, thirty miles off, at two distinct deliveries, 300 tons of goods, in about twelve hours." The occurrence is perfectly astounding; and, had it been hinted at fifty years ago, would have been deemed impossible.

"At this moment there are in England, it is computed, about fifteen hundred miles of railway in progress in various directions, by means of which,-although it is to be wished perhaps that, in the first instance, the different lines had been arranged more advantageously in relation one to another,—a wonderfully increased facility of communication will be effected. Among the most important of these must be regarded the great lines connecting the metropolis with Birmingham, and, through Birmingham, with Liverpool and Manchester; with the Midland Counties; with Bristol; and with Southampton; and the important line, although of trifling extent, which will unite the greater number of these with the Thames, and with one another, known as the "Birmingham, Bristol, and Thames Junction." We know little of the directors of these various lines; we know not at all whether the undertakings be conducted economically and wisely-(to these points let the shareholders and the public look)—but this we do know, that if properly managed, not only will they render all that permanent service to the country which we have attempted to show railways must ever yield, but they will afford an abundant return for the capital invested. The journey to Liverpool will occupy, even in the present state of locomotive science, hardly ten hours! to Bristol, five hours; and to Southampton, three hours."

We may also cite the author's remarks on the moral effects that will probably result from the rail-road system; and we are happy to say that they perfectly coincide with our own expectations on this head :

"There is, however, one point in connexion with railways-one result which, from its all-involving importance, demands from us, before concluding, a separate notice. We speak of the amazing improvement which will necessarily be brought about in the habits and morals of the rural population-the cultivation of taste, and the diffusion of knowledge, through the general intercommunication which will then take place. Knowledge will be disseminated; the concentration of intellect and power, now only exhibited in the metropolis, will be spread abroad indefinitely, and the moral condition of our species be immeasurably advanced.

"If our views then be correct, railways claim earnest support alike from the manufacturer and the agriculturist, the man of science, the man of capital, and the philanthropist; and would do so if no other country in the world yet knew their advantages. This, however, we must remember, is not the case. Railways are in progress in nearly all the civilized countries of the globe,-in France, in Belgium, in Germany, in Russia, and in India. In America, indeed, more than three thousand miles have been constructed; and although, so far as excellence and effectiveness are regarded, they may not be compared with those which have been formed in England, the rapidity with which all this has been carried into execution demands our admiration. To retain our pre-eminent position, then, as manufacturers for the world-a position which our improved machinery has principally enabled us to maintain so long, in spite of our enormous debt, requires that we should double our endeavours to increase the facilities of communication throughout the country; and we would strongly and sincerely urge every individual of the society to lend his utmost aid in establishing and increasing their effectiveness, feeling assured