ellvee, the latter a kind of plum, and the shaddock. Besides cocoa-nuts, they have three other kinds of palms. There is also a species of wild fig, which is sometimes eaten. The other cultivated vegetables are sugar-cane, bamboo, gourds, turmeric, yams of two sorts, one black and very large, the other white and small. A large root called kappe, and one not unlike our white potatoe, the manioc, and the jee jee.

The only quadrupeds, besides hogs, are a few rats, and some dogs, which are not originally natives of this group, but were introduced by captain Cook in his second voyage; and some were also brought from the Fidjee Islands. A large breed of fowls is found in a domestic state. The birds are parrots and parroquets, owls, cuckoos, kingfishers, and a bird the size of a thrush, which is the only one that sings, but which compensates the want of others by the strength and melody of its notes. The other land birds are rails, of two kinds, one as large as a pigeon, the other not bigger than a lark; coots, fly-catchers, a very small swallow, and three sorts of pigeons, one of which is the bronzewinged. The water fowl are ducks, blue and white herons, tropic birds, noddies, two species of terns, a small curlew, and a large plover spotted with yellow. There are also the large bat, or flying fox, and the common sort The only noxious or disagreeable reptiles and insects are sea-snakes, scorpions, and centipedes, guanas, and small lizards. Amongst the insects are beautiful moths, butterflies, and very large spiders, making in the whole about fifty species.

The fish of the coasts and reefs are abundan', and the shell-fish in particular, in great variety: among them are the true hammer, and pearloyster.

In all the islands good water is scarce it is indeed to be found in most of them, but either in so small a quantity, or in situations so inconvenient, as rarely to serve the purpose of navigators. The natives of the Friendly Islands seldom exceed the middle size, but are strong, wellmade, and of very various features: among them, we are told, are many true European countenances, and Roman noses. Their eyes and teeth are good, but the latter not very white, or well set. The women are not so much distinguished from the men by their features as by their shape, which is much more delicate; and, though there are some very beautiful females to be met with, they are not common. The general color is a shade deeper than the copper brown, but many of both sexes have an olive complexion, and some of the women are even much fairer. Their hair is in general straight, thick, and strong, though a few have it brushy or frizzled: the men cut their beards short, and both sexes eradicate the hair from under their arms. Both men and women are partially tattooed. The natural color is black, but most of the men, and some of the women, have it stained of a brown, or purple color, and a few of an orange cast. Their countenances express cheerfulness, mildness, and good nature, though sometimes in the presence of their chiefs they assume an air of gravity, which, however, is evidently foreign to their general character.

The graceful air and firm step with which they in general walk, are proofs of their personal accomplishments, and their moral qualities have been described as highly estimable: captain Cook found them frank, good humored, industrious, ingenious, and persevering; above all, most hospitable, and courting an intercourse by barter, which they seemed to understand perfectly. Both sexes and all ages are said, however, to exhibit a strong propensity to thieving from strangers, but thefts among themselves seem to be uncommon.

There are few natural defects or deformities to be found amongst them, nor do they appear subject to numerous, or acute diseases. Amongst those with which they are occasionally afflicted are a sort of blindness, caused by a disease of the cornea, the ring-worm, and an indolent swelling of the legs and arms.

The dress of both sexes consists of a piece of cloth, or matting, wound once and a half round the waist, where it is confined by a girdle or cord; it is double before, and hangs down like a petticoat to the middle of the leg; the upper part above the girdle is formed into several folds, so that there is sufficient cloth to draw up and wrap round the shoulders. The size of this garment is in proportion to the consequence of the wearer, the inferior class being content with very small ones, and often wearing nothing but a piece of narrow cloth, or matting, like a sash, and called a maro, which they pass between the thighs, and wrap round the waist, but the use of it is chiefly confined to the men. In their great entertainments they have dresses made for the purpose of the same form, but covered with red feathers. Both men and women shade their faces from the sun with little bonnets of various materials. The ornaments of both sexes are necklaces of the fruit of the pandanus, and various sweet-smelling flowers, of small shells, sharks' teeth, and other things. On the upper part of the arm they sometimes wear a polished mother of pearl shell ring, rings of tortoise-shell on the fingers, and a number of these joined together as bracelets. The lobes of the ears, though most frequently but one, are perforated with two holes, in which they wear cylindrical bits of ivory or reed, three inches long, thrust in at one hole, and out at the other. The women rub themselves all over with the powder of turmeric. They frequently bathe in the fresh water ponds, though the water in most of them stinks intolerably, and these they prefer to the sea-water, which they think hurts their skin. They rub their bodies all over, and particularly their heads, with cocoanut oil, which preserves the skin smooth and soft.

Their mode of life is a medium between indolence and labor. The climate, and the natural fertility of the soil, render the latter unnecessary, and their active disposition is a bar to the former. The female employments are generally confined to domestic concerns, and the manufacturing cloth and mats, which latter are used for dress, for sleeping on, and for mere ornament: the last being made from the tough membraneous part of the stock of the plantain-tree, and those for clothing of the pandanus, cultivated for that purpose.

The men are laborious agriculturists, architects, and fishermen: boat-building is also one of their principal employments.

Cultivated roots forming the chief part of their food, they have brought them to considerable perfection. Their plantain walks and yam fields are very extensive, and are enclosed by neat reed fences. These vegetables are planted in regular lines, with a kind of wooden spade, three or four inches broad. The cocoa-nut and bread-fruit are scattered without regularity, and require no trouble after they are at a certain height.

Their habitations, particularly of the lower class, are but very poor, scarcely capable of sheltering them from the weather; those of the higher orders are neither agreeable nor comfortable. The dimensions of one of a middle size are about thirty feet long, twenty broad, and twelve high: it is a kind of thatched shed, supported by posts and rafters, and roofed with matting and branches of the cocoa-nut tree. The whole of their furniture consists of a bowl or two (in which they make their kava), gourds, cocoa-nut shells, small wooden stools, which serve for pillows, and a large stool for the head of the family to sit on. Their houses are, however, of little other use than to sleep in, and shelter them from the weather, for they usually take their meals in the open air. In the construction of their boats they show much ingenuity and dexterity, though their tools are only adzes of a smooth black stone, augers of sharks' teeth, and rasps of the rough skin of a fish, fixed on flat slips of wood. The implements which they use as knives are of shells. Their fishing-lines are made from the fibres of the cocoa-nut husk, plaited; and the large cordage, by twisting several of these plaits together Their small fishing-hooks are entirely of pearl shell, but the large ones are only covered with it on the back, the points or barbs being of tortoise-shell. They have also nets, some of which are of a very delicate texture: these they use to catch the fish which remain in the holes of the reefs, when the tide is out.

The other employments are making musica reeds, flutes, warlike weapons, and stools, or pillows. The reeds have eight, nine, or ten pieces placed parallel to each other, but not in any regular progression, so that none of them have more than six notes; and the flutes are a joint of bamboo, close at both ends, with six holes, three of which only are used in playing, which is done by applying the thumb of the left hand to the left nostril, and blowing into one of the holes with the other; and though the notes are but three, they produce a pleasing simple music. Their weapons are clubs, highly carved, spears, darts, and bows and arrows, which latter, how ever, seem to be used only to kill birds, and not in war.

Of their animal food, the chief articles are hogs, fowls, fish, and all sorts of shell-fish. The lower people also eat rats and dogs. Fowl and turtle seem to be only occasional dainties reserved for their chiefs. Their meat is in general drest by baking, and is eaten without any kind of sauce; their beverage at their meals is confined to water, or cocoa-nut milk. Their food is divided into portions, each to serve a certain

number, and these portions are again subdivided so that seldom more than two or three persons are seen eating together at their repasts. The women and men in general eat together, but there are certain ranks that can neither eat nor drink in company. They seem to have no set time for their meals, but they all take one during the night. They go to rest as soon as it is dark, and rise with the dawn. They are fond of society, and form conversation parties at one another's houses. Their 'other amusements are singing, dancing, and music performed by the women. Their public diversions are single combats and wrestling, in which women as well as men exhibit; dances, in which upwards of 100 men sometimes are engaged, to the music of hollow pieces of wood, beat on with sticks, and accompanied by a chorus of vocal music: the women also perform in their public dances.

One of their chief pleasures is the drinking kava, a beverage composed of the root of a species of pepper; the process of brewing which is not very delicate. A company being assembled, the root is produced, and being broken in small pieces, and the dirt scraped off by servants, each person receives a piece, which, after chewing, he spits into a plantain leaf. The person appointed to prepare the liquor receives all the mouthfuls into a wooden bowl, and adds as much water as will make it of a proper strength; it is then well mixed with the hands, and some loose stuff, of which the mats are made, is thrown on the surface, which intercepts the fibres, and is wrung hard to get as much liquor out of it as possible. It is then served out to the company in cups of about a quarter of a pint each. This liquor has an intoxicating, or rather stupifying effect, on those not used to it; and it is so disagreeable, that even the natives, though they drink it several times in the forenoon, cannot swallow it without making wry faces.

Polygamy is not common, but is practised by the chiefs; and though female chastity in the unmarried of the lower order is in little estimation, those of the higher orders are discreet, it is said, and conjugal infidelity is rare.

Their mourning is singularly severe and barbarous; consisting in cutting and burning their flesh, beating their teeth with stones, and inflicting on themselves every kind of torment. The dead are buried, wrapped up in mats or cloth.

Round the graves of their kings and principal chiefs they often mangle one another in a kind of bacchanalian frenzy, of which the following account is given by one of the missionaries, who resided here lately for several years:-"The space round the tomb was, on this occasion, a palæstra for savage gladiators. Hundreds ran about it with ferocious emulation, to signalise their grief for the venerated chief, or their contempt of pain and death, by inflicting on themselves the most ghastly wounds, and exhibiting spectacles of the greatest horror. Thousands, ere the period of mourning was over, fought with each other, and cut themselves with sharp instruments. It was an awful scene indeed! Night after night we heard, for some weeks, the horrid sound of the couch-shell rousing these deluded creatures to these dreadful rites of mourning for the dead;

and shrieks and clashing arms, and the rushing and violence of the multitude, re-echoed round our abode, and rendered it a scene of continual horror and alarm.' When they labor under any severe and dangerous malady, they cut off one, or both of their little fingers, which they think the divinity will accept in lieu of their bodies.

They have no priests, but are not, therefore, without religious ideas; and, though they seem to have no notion of future punishment, they believe that they are justly punished on earth. Each district, and every family of the higher orders, has its respective tutelary god, and each individual his odooa, or attendant spirit, who partakes more of the evil than the good genius, being supposed to inflict diseases, and who is, therefore, propitiated by sacrifices, and even sometimes by human ones.

The greatest of their gods is Higgo-layo, the lord of the country of the dead, which lies far distant, and whither the souls of their chiefs, on their release, are immediately conveyed in a fastsailing canoe, there to riot for ever in the enjoy ment of all sensual pleasures. As to the souls of the lower class, they are eaten by an imaginary bird, which walks on their graves: they seem to represent the pleasures of their future Paradise as above the conception of the vulgar.

The elements have their subordinate deities who are often at variance with each other. The goddess of the wind is named Cala Filatonga, and is believed to cause the hurricanes which sometimes visit the islands. Their islands they suppose to rest on the shoulders of the god Mowee, who, being tired of his burden, often en deavours to shake it off, which produces th earthquakes, to which the islands are also subject. The same religious system is not, however, prevalent throughout all the islands, but the general ideas are the same Their morais, or burying-grounds, are also places of religious worship.

The missionaries were not able to learn what ideas they form of the origin of their existence, or of any other parts of the creation; when spoken to on these subjects, they seem quite lost. Among their superstitious practices may be mentioned the 'taboo,' which means, in its literal signification, prohibited, or set apart from common use. Thus a house becomes tabooed by the king's presence in it, and can no longer be inhabited even by its owner; and hence there are generally houses provided in every quarter for the use of his majesty. A space of ground, or any article of food may be tabooed; and in this case the ground canrot be passed, nor is it lawful to use the food until the taboo be taken off. By assisting at a funeral, or touching a dead body, the hands are tabooed, and cannot be employed in taking food; and in this case the person is fed by others.

Their form of government somewhat resembles the feudal system of our forefathers, being composed of a king, several powerful hereditary chiefs, almost independent of the king, and numerous smaller dependent chiefs. As to the lower class, they are almost the slaves of these chiefs, to whom they are profoundly submissive. The

peculiar honors paid to the king are, that no one is allowed to walk over his head, and, whenever he walks out, every one must sit down till he is past. The method of saluting his majesty is by sitting down before him, bowing the head to the sole of his foot, and touching it with the upper and under sides of the fingers of both hands. After thus saluting the king, or any great chief, the hands must not touch food of any kind, until they are washed or rubbed with the leaves of plants, as a substitute for water.

The language of the Friendly Islanders, which is from the Malay root, is sufficiently copious for all the ideas of the people; harmonious in conversation; and is adapted both to song and recitative. Its construction is simple, and in some of its rules it agrees with other languages; as, for instance, in the degrees of comparison, but the nouns or verbs seem to have no inflections. The whole extent of their verbal numeration is 100,000.

The cloth of their garments is made of the bark of the slender stalks of the paper mulberry, cultivated for the purpose, which is thus performed:-The outer rind of the bark being scraped off, the inner is rolled up to make it flat, and is macerated in water for a night; it is then laid on the trunk of a tree, squared, and beaten with a wooden instrument full of grooves on all sides, until a piece of cloth is produced, and the longer it is beaten, the fi.er and closer is the cloth. When this operation is finished, the pieces, which are usually from four to six feet in length, and half as broad, are spread out to dry, and are afterwards joined together by smearing the edges with the viscous juice of a berry. Having been thus lengthened, they are laid over a large piece of wood with a kind of stamp between made of a fibrous substance closely interwoven. They then take a bit of cloth, and, dipping it in a certain juice expressed from the bark of a tree, rub it briskly over the cloth, which gives it a dull brown color and a dry gloss.

ner,

a horrid spectacle almost froze my blood. "It was a woman in a sitting posture, with folded arms, holding a child to her breast, as in the act of suckling it. Upon approaching them, I found both the mother and child cold and stiff with death. The enemy had killed them while in this posture, and indulged their savage revenge in amusing themselves with placing the dead bodies in this affecting attitude.' He elsewhere states that one of the common modes of warfare among them is to tootang, as they express it; that is to come upon the adverse party by surprise, to massacre in secret, to carry off plunder, to cut down the plantains and cocoa-trees, and to commit every species of devastation. Women, children, and prisoners, are murdered without mercy; and the dead bodies, after being exposed to the most brutal indignities, are roasted and devoured with voracious satisfaction.'

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. See SOCIETIES, FRIENDLY.

FRIENDS or Quakers, a numerous and respectable religious society, which took its rise about the middle of the seventeenth century, and spread very quickly into the British colonies in North America, as well as into various countries in Europe. The members called themselves at first Seekers, from their seeking the truth; but after their society was formed assumed the name of Friends. The name of Quakers was given them in derision, and though it is, perhaps to the reproach of those who use it, the appellation by which they are generally designated, we here prefer to describe the history and peculiarities of the sect under the denomination and principally in the terms they themselves admit. George Fox, sometimes described as a shoemaker, but originally intended for the church, is generally allowed to have been the founder of this society. They were soon after joined by a number of learned, ingenious, and pious men. The chief of these were George Keith, the justly celebrated William Penn (see PENN), and Robert Barclay of Ury. See BARCLAY. Keith, after associating with them for nearly thirty years, became the author of the only schism among them, of which we have read. He was a native of Scotland, and educated at Aberdeen; and being imprisoned as a Quaker, in 1664, and having, in 1675, assisted Barclay in a public disputation against the students at Aberdeen, he attracted notice, and wrote much in defence of the principles of the Quakers, which he thoroughly understood: he was also employed in the education of their youth; but was thought by them to have indulged too much in curious and useless speculations. Being again repeatedly imprisoned, he removed to America about 1684. Here, after some previous general censure of his friends, he accused several, in particular, of gross error in doctrine; the pretext for which was, their holding (as he himself had done) that the knowledge and belief of the history of Christ is not necessary for the salvation of those who have no possible means of acquiring it. His complaints against individuals leading to more general contention, the Friends in England interfered, and the parties were heard before the yearly meeting in

London, which decided the cause against Keith, and he remained under the disownment' pronounced against him in America. He now set up a separate Quakers' meeting in London, attacked the principles he had formerly defended (on which occasions the Friends replied by quotations from his own works), and finally entered into the church of England. He was soon after ordained priest, and sent as a missionary to America, to bring over his former brethren. But his efforts, though for a while troublesome to the Friends, were attended with very little success; he returned to England, sunk into obscurity on a small living in Sussex, and his party soon disappeared.

Of the Religious Doctrine of Friends.—The Friends may be said to be chiefly distinguishable from other sects as to doctrine in asserting the continuance, to the present time, of immediate revelation, or the communication of divine instruction to the mind, by the testimony of the Spirit of God. This revelation they affirm to be necessary for the production of true faith, while they also say it neither does nor can contradict the outward testimony of the Scriptures or right and sound reason. Their doctrine on this subject has been often misunderstood; and they have in consequence been subjected to much obloquy. It is, however, the principal feature in that peculiar view of Christianity which has occasioned their separation from other churches. A publication placed in our hands by a member of this society, and originally drawn up by Mr. J. G. Bevan, we believe, thus states their doctrine.

'We believe in God the Father Almighty, the creator and preserver of the universe, in Jesus Christ his Son, the Messiah and mediator of the new covenant, and in the Holy Spirit, the comforter, or Spirit of Truth. The divinity of Christ, and his oneness with the Father, we acknowledge and assert according to the Scriptures; we also believe in Him as the sacrifice and propitiation for the sins of the whole world, whereby mankind are placed in a capacity for salvation; and that, as each individual submits unreservedly to the purifying operations of the Holy Spirit, he comes fully to partake of the benefits of redemption, and to experience the blood of Jesus Christ to cleanse him from all sin.' In expressing ourselves on the subject of the gracious display of the love of God to mankind in the coming of our Saviour, we include a belief in his miraculous conception, birth, life, miracles, death, resurrection, and ascension. We may add, that in reference to these, to the foregoing, and to other points of Christian doctrine, we prefer the use of such terms as we find in Scripture; and contented with that knowledge which divine wisdom hath seen meet to reveal, we attempt not to explain those mysteries which remain under the veil.'

In an early confession of their faith (that of 1673) they thus further explain themselves on these important points. We sincerely profess faith in God by his only-begotten son Jesus Christ, as being our light and life, our only way to the Father, and also our only mediator and advocate with the Father; that God created

all things, he made the worlds by his son Jesus Christ, he being that powerful and living Word of God by whom all things were made; and that the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, are one, in divine being inseparable; one true, living, and eternal God blessed for ever;-yet that this Word, or Son of God, in the fulness of -time, took flesh, became perfect man, according to the flesh descended and came of the seed of Abraham and David, but was miraculously conceived by the Holy Ghost, and born of the Virgin Mary, and also, farther, declared powerfully to be the Son of God, according to the Spirit of sanctification, by the resurrection from the dead; -that, as man, Christ died for our sins, rose again, and was received up into glory in the heavens; he having, in his dying for all, been that one, great, universal offering and sacrifice for peace, atonement, and reconciliation between God and man; and he is the propitiation not for our sins only, but for the sins of the whole world; we were reconciled by his death, but saved by his life;-that divine bonor and worship is due to the Son of God; and that he is in true faith to be prayed unto, and the name of the Lord Jesus Christ called upon (as the primitive Christians did), because of the glorious union or oneness of the Father and the Son.' Sewel's History, p. 643.

We resume Mr. Bevan's summary statement. 'To Christ alone we give the title of the Word of God, and not to the Scriptures; although we highly esteem these sacred writings, in subordination to the Spirit from which they were given forth; and we hold, with the apostle Paul, that they are able to make wise unto salvation, through faith which is in Christ Jesus.'

We revere those most excellent precepts which are recorded in Scripture to have been delivered by our great Lord, and we firmly believe that they are practicable, and binding on every Christian: and that in the life to come every man will be rewarded according to his works. And further it is our belief, that, in order to enable mankind to put in practice these sacred precepts, many of which are contradictory to the unregenerate will of man, every man coming into the world is endued with a measure of the light, grace, or good Spirit of Christ; by which, as it is attended to, he is enabled to distinguish good from evil, and to correct the disorderly passions and corrupt propensities of his fallen nature, which mere reason is altogether insufficient to overcome. For all that belongs to man is fallible, and within the reach of temptation; but this divine grace, which comes by Him who hath overcome the world, is, to those who humbly and sincerely seek it, an all-sufficient and present help in time of need. By this the snares of the enemy are detected, his allurements avoided, and deliverance is experienced through faith in its effectual operation; whereby (as before in other words expressed), the soul is translated out of the kingdom of darkness, and from under the power of Satan, into the marvellous light and kingdom of the Son of God. Being thus persuaded, that man, without the Spirit of Christ inwardly revealed, can do nothing to the glory of God, or to effect his own salvation, we

think this influence especially necessary to the performance of the highest act of which the human mind is capable; even the worship of the Father of lights and of spirits, in spirit and in truth: therefore we consider as obstructions to pure worship all forms which divert the attention of the mind from the secret influence of this 'unction from the Holy One.' Yet, although true worship is not confined to time and place, we think it incumbent on Christians to meet often together, in testimony of their dependence on their heavenly Father, and for a renewal of their spiritual strength: we therefore, in common with almost all who profess the Christian name, are in the practice of assembling for this purpose on the first day of the week; and it is also our practice to hold a meeting for worship on some other day, about the middle of the week.-The due observance of one day in seven as a day of rest, and a day more especially set apart for the purpose of public worship, and for other duties of a religious nature, we believe to be incumbent on a Christian community, agreeably to the authority of Holy Scripture; and of incalculable importance in its results. Although we have thus our stated times for assembling together for the performance of public worship, nevertheless, we dare not depend, for our acceptance with God, on a formal repetition of the words and experiences of others; but we believe it to be our duty to lay aside the activity of the imagination, and to wait in silence to have a true sight of our condition bestowed upon us: believing even a single sigh, arising from such a sense of our infirmities, and of the need we have of divine help, to be more acceptable to God, than any performances, however specious, which originate in the will of man.

'From what has been said respecting worship, it follows, that the ministry we approve must have its origin from the same source; for that which is needful for a man's own direction, and for his acceptance with God, must be eminently so to enable him to be helpful to others. Accordingly we believe that the renewed assistance of the light and power of Christ is indispensably necessary for all true ministry; and that this holy influence is not at our command, or to be procured by study, but is the free gift of God to chosen and devoted servants.-Hence arises our testimony against preaching for hire, in contradiction to Christ's positive command, Freely ye have received, freely give;' and hence our conscientious refusal to support such ministry, by tithes or other means.

'As we dare not encourage any ministry, but that which we believe to spring from the influence of the Holy Spirit, so neither dare we attempt to restrain this ministry to persons of any condition in life, or to the male sex alone; but, as male and female are one in Christ, we hold it proper that such of the female sex as we believe to be endued with a right qualification for the ministry, should exercise their gifts for the general edification of the church: and this liberty we esteem a peculiar mark of the gospel dis pensation, as foretold by the prophet Joel, and noticed by the apostle Peter.