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While (or whilst ') often introduces a clause expressing duration, but may sometimes refer especially to circumstances.

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Ex. I.: While we are dreaming, time is passing away.' Ex. II. While you are making that noise, I have to solve this problem.'

Until has reference to a point of time, and answers the question how long?'

Ex.: peared.'

'He stayed on the mountain until the sun ap

As (following 'as' or 'so') introduces a clause of limitation, or of comparison.

:

Ex. I. So far as I can see, there is no exception to the rule.'

Ex. II. He runs as fast as you can run.'

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So (following as ') may introduce a clause defining a proportionate increase or decrease.

Ex.: As the heat increases, so the mercury in the thermometer rises.'

Than refers to a preceding comparative adjective or adverb.

Ex.: He runs faster than I can run.'

When 'than' is immediately followed by a dependent pronoun, such as 'me,' 'him,' or 'them,' some words have been omitted. But we find in good authors whom' placed next to than.' Dependent pronouns follow prepositions.

If introduces a conditional clause.

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Ex.: If I have time, I will call upon you.'

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If (following as ') introduces a clause of comparison. Ex.: He looks as if' he did not know us' (i.e. as he might look if he did not know us).

'As though' is found instead of ' as if,' where the meaning is like that of the given example.

'As' may serve to indicate a ground or reason for a following assertion.

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Ex.: As I have not read the book, I shall not attempt to describe it.'

Because (more distinct than 'for') refers an effect to its cause.

"The lake must be frozen, because the temperature has long been lower than twenty degrees.'

That may introduce a clause expressing a purpose, or following 'so'-may indicate a manner of acting.

Ex. I. The guide will go forward, that he may show us the way.'

Ex. II. He went away, so that his departure was not noticed.'

'That' is a versatile connective, and may introduce either an adjective clause or a noun clause.

Ex. I.-'Here is the man that will tell the truth.'
Ex. II.-'We know that you wrote the letter.'

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Though. A sentence preceded by a clause beginning with though' (or although') serves to contradict a sequence of cause and effect that might be expected.

Ex.: Though you cannot understand it, you must admit that it is true.'

Lest introduces a clause expressing the opposite of a wish or a purpose.

Ex.:

'Lest our feet should step astray,

Protect and guide us in the way.'

In the Bible, lest, following a command (or a warn=‘that'. . . not,' or 'that'. . . ' no.'

ing),

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Ex. I.: Take heed, that no man deceive you.'

Ex. II. Take heed, lest any man deceive you.' Unless (like except') may introduce a conditional clause.

He will not be pardoned unless he repent.'
Except these abide in the ship, ye cannot

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Of the particles here noticed as subordinative conjunctions, the following may, in other places, serve as adverbs:before,' so,' when,' where,' wherever.' The words 'before' and 'except' are used as prepositions.

VARIOUS USES.-In parsing a sentence every particle should be named with respect to its use in the sentence. One particle-for example, but '—may serve in one

place as an adverb, in another as a preposition, and in a third place as a conjunction.

Ex. I.: Other joys are but toys' ('but' = 'only').

Ex. II.: All but honour is lost' ('but'except '). Ex. III.: Mushrooms soon spring up, but oaks grow slowly.'

In Ex. I.

In Ex. II.

but' is used as an adverb.

but' is used as a preposition. In Ex. III. but' connects two sentences.

The particle serving to define a verb, an adjective, or an adverb is called an Adverb.

The particle placed before a noun (or a pronoun) to show its relation is called a Preposition.

The particle that connects sentences is a Conjunction. In many sentences the position of the adverb may be changed.

Ex. II.:
Ex. III.

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Ex. I.: Sunshine now brightens the dale.' Sunshine brightens now the dale.' Now sunshine brightens the dale.' The Preposition may be moved, if taken with its dependent noun, but otherwise must not leave its place. Ex. I. In the morning the lark's song is heard.' Ex. II. The lark's song is heard in the morning.' In many instances the Conjunction is immovable. it be moved, the following clause must also be moved. Ex. I.: The water flows rapidly here; for the bed of the stream is steep.'

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Ex. II.: If you persevere, you will win.'

Ex. III: You will win, if you persevere.'

*15. INTERJECTIONS.

If

Simple vowels, syllables with no distinct meaning, phrases, and some contracted sentences are found among the expressions called INTERJECTIONS.

Some interjections are contracted forms of words. Others may be accepted as sounds used instinctively to express emotions. An extended notice of such words and sounds has great interest in connexion with the history of culture. There are found comparatively few interjections in E.I. literature, which was mostly written by churchmen, and by no means represented the common talk of the people. In É.II. interjections are, in some respects, too abundant. In many examples, strange abbreviations, and other changes made in sacred names, served to disguise irreverence. The use of such expletives is well reproved in an old Treatise on Penitence,' of which a translation, called the 'Persones Tale,' is ascribed to CHAUCER.

Some sounds called interjections have vague or versatile meanings- like those of 'O!' and 'ah!' Others have uses that, in some degree, may be defined. Wonder is expressed by 'Oho!' and sometimes by 'ah!' which serves also as an expression of grief. Contempt may be expressed by 'pooh!' 'psha!' or 'fudge!' This word is made classical by a passage in GOLDSMITH. Disbelief is indicated by 'indeed! and by forsooth!' The latter, used formerly in serious affirmation, truly!' The word 'nay,' when used as an interjection, means yea, and more than that!' The word 'why' sometimes serves as an interjection expressing a momentary hesitation.

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Abhorrence may be expressed by means of such exclamations as 'fie!''out!' and ' away y!' The meaning of the last is more distinctly given in the French avaunt!' which is an altered form of the Latin 'ab ante,' and 'out of my way!' For bidding silence 'hush!' hist!' and 'whist!" are used. The Old French verb 'oyes!' (='hear ye!') belongs to courts of law. In salutations the E.I. verb wilcumian (= greet kindly) is still used in the form of 'welcome!'(= 'hail!'); but 'well-done!' is a compound word, of which the first part is the adverb 'well.' Of exclamations serving to excite action several are obsolete. The adverb 'yare' (: 'ready'), used as an interjection by SHAKESPEARE, belongs to the stem gar, of which the uses in Teutonic languages are extensive. The old cry for help 'harow!' and the war-cry 'havoc!' are obsolete.

A further analysis of exclamations might lead too far. The cry of Chanticleer has sometimes served as an interjection. The calls 'loo, loo!' and 'halloo!'-belonging to the chase

and some calls addressed to animals-'hayt!' 'wo!' etc.— might be classed with interjections.

Interjections have no syntax, or connexion with words in a sentence. Where such connexion appears, a word has been omitted. Ex.: 'Woe is me!' = 'Woe is for me.'

INFLEXIONS.

*16. INTRODUCTION.-NOUNS. E.I.

When the form of a word is changed in order to show a difference in its use, or its relation to another word, the change is called inflexion. The several inflexions indicating the various relations in which a noun may be placed in a sentence are called case-endings. The appended table shows all the case-endings of the Latin noun 'puer,' a boy.

NOUN-SECOND DECLENSION (MASCULINE).

The general use of inflexions of case is to serve as substitutes for prepositions. The English prepositions used in the example here given by no means serve to represent all the uses of the several cases. When it is