tive, because their derivation from other forms is not clearly known: —'at,' ' by,' ' for,' 'from,' 'in,' 'on,' ' of,' 'till,'' to,'' up,'' with.'

The following are compounds of particles :-above, 'about,' 'before,' 'behind,' 'beneath,' 'beyond,' 'but,' 'into,' throughout,'' until,'' upon,' 'within,' without.' The following are compounds of particles and nouns :'across,' against,' among,' beside' (or 'besides').

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The following are compounds of particles and adjectives along,' amid,' around,' 'athwart,' 'below,' 'between,'' toward' (or 'towards').

*14. CONJUNCTIONS.-FORMS.

Some Adverbs and some Prepositions are used as Conjunctions.

Words more distinctly serving to connect sentences are here noticed; firstly, with respect to origin and composition. Their forms are mostly found in E.I. The sign + shows that words having like forms in E.I. and M.E. have different

Some Conjunctions (called correlative) consist of two words placed apart, as in the examples appended. Of these conjunctions, that may be described as going in pairs, several were often employed in E.I. and E.II., and they are still used in M.E.

The repetition of 'what' (in the form of 'what' 'what') has been classed with correlative conjunctions. E.II. that form is used as = 'partly' . . . 'partly.'

nor

In

Some conjunctions found in the literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are now treated as obsolete. A few examples are appended.

CONJUNCTIONS are words used to connect sentences. Ex.: The sun shines and the rainbow appears.' A sentence tells something and contains one verb. A phrase consists of two or more words, but does not contain a verb. Ex.: for a time;' 'in a place.'

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The conjunction and serves to connect sentences, or phrases, or words.

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Ex. I.: The sun shines and the rainbow appears.'
Ex. II. In the morning and in the evening my

voice shall be heard.'

Ex. III. A mixture of blue and yellow makes green.'

Conjunctions are divided into two classes, called Coordinative and Subordinative.

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Ex. 1st class: 'and,' 'or,' 'but,' 'yet, for.' Ex. 2nd class: that,' 'as,' 'than,' because,' 'if,' 'unless,' though,' 'lest.'

CO-ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

And serves to indicate a natural sequence, or a likeness of two assertions.

Ex. I.: Dense clouds were collected, and gloom was spread over the dale.' Ex. II.

A false witness shall not go unpunished, and he that speaketh lies shall perish.'

The

No other conjunction has all the uses of and. following words serve here and there to take its place :'also,' besides,' further,' meanwhile,' now,' 'even.'

Several words that in Second English might sometimes take the place of 'and' are now almost, or quite, obsolete. Ex.:eke' (quite obsolete, also '), 'further,' 'furthermore,' 'likewise,' 'moreover,' 'thereon," thereupon, therewithal.'

=

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The Ordinal Adverbs-firstly,' secondly,' thirdly,' etc.-serve to connect sentences, and to show the order in which assertions, etc., are placed.

Or (often preceded by either and sometimes followed by else) may serve to indicate that of two assertions one must be true.

Ex.: Either Achilles must subdue his anger, or he must see the defeat of the Grecian army.'

Nor, preceded by neither, or by not, indicates a twofold negation, or a forbidding of two things.

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Ex. I.: Neither hath this man sinned, nor [have] his parents [sinned].'

Ex. II. Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them.'

But may serve to indicate a contrast, or may intro

duce a limitation, or may strengthen a denial already expressed by not.'

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Ex. I.: Wealth maketh many friends; but the poor is separated from his neighbour.'

Ex. II. In youth they loved each other; but their friendship was not permanent.'

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Ex. III.: Wisdom will not make us love disputation, but will show the vanity of our disputes.'

For (or therefore) is used when one sentence tells the effect, and another tells the cause.

Ex.: The water flows rapidly here; for the bed of the river has a steep descent.'

In all the preceding examples the conjunctions are Coordinative, and the sentences connected are Co-ordinate Sentences. Each has an independent meaning. In the first of the examples given to show the uses of 'but,' the conjunction may be omitted, and still the meaning of the second sentence remains unchanged. This is not the case when sentences are connected by 'if.' Ex.: 'You will win if you persevere.* Take away if,' and the second sentence is an assertion. But, when following' if,' the second sentence expresses a condition of winning. The second sentence serves to limit or define the meaning of the first, as the adverb 'perhaps' may serve to limit the assertion expressed by a verb. A sentence thus serving, or making no independent assertion, is called Subordinate. The conjunctions by which Subordinate Sentences are introduced are called Subordinative. It is convenient to describe as Clauses all Subordinate Sentences.

The independent sentence to which a Clause belongs is called the Principal Sentence.

When placed in connexion with a Principal Sentence, a Clause may serve as a Noun, or as an Adjective, or as an

Adverb.

Ex. I. 'I know that flatterers are often traitors.'

Ex. II. The man who acts honestly has peace of mind.'
Ex. III. 'He began to work when the day dawned.'

In Ex. I. the words in Italic form a Noun Clause, and follow the verb, just as the words 'the fact' might follow. In Ex. II. the words in Italic form an Adjective Clause, and qualify the noun 'man.' In Ex. III. the words in Italic form an Adverbial Clause, and define the verb 'began,' as the adverb 'early' might define it.

In Ex. II. the Adjective Clause is introduced by the Relative Pronoun 'who.' It must be noticed here that the words more strictly called Conjunctions are not the only words employed to connect sentences. Adjective Clauses are introduced by means of Relative Pronouns, and sometimes by means of Adverbs. Adverbial Clauses are introduced by words otherwise used as Adverbs or as Prepositions.

Simple Adverbs—i.e. adverbial expressions, each contained in a single word-serve to define verbs with respect to place, time, degree, cause, and manner. Adverbial Phrases are formed by placing prepositions before nouns, and serve also (but more extensively) to define verbs with respect to place, time, degree, cause, and manner. Subordinative Conjunctions -including words otherwise used as adverbs and as prepositions-serve to introduce clauses by which definitions of place, time, degree, cause, and manner are more completely and more clearly expressed. The extended treatment of Subordinative Conjunctions belongs to the Analysis of Sentences; but a few examples of uses may here be appended.

SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

Where serves to introduce an adverbial clause of PLACE, that may answer the question 'where?'

Ex.: He found the book where he left it.'

Wherever introduces a clause that may answer a question beginning either with 'where' or 'whither.'

Ex.: He will go wherever duty may call him.' Before may introduce an adverbial clause of TIME, and may serve to indicate either the Past or the Future. Ex. I.: Before I was afflicted, I went astray.'

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Ex. II. Look before you leap.'

Ere-more frequently used in verse than in prosehas the meaning of 'before,' or 'sooner than,' and may have reference either to the Past or to the Future.

When mostly refers to a point of Time; but may introduce a conditional clause, as in Ex. II. and III. Ex. I. You will come when the bell rings.'

Ex. II.

me?'

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Do you hope to win respect when you flatter

Ex. III. When the bell is cast, the form may be broken.'