age. Since that great transition from Old English to New, no other change that can be compared with it has taken place. Nothing more is therefore required here to show that the history of our language has been closely connected with the history of the people. The general result is an intimate union of the two vocabularies English and Roman; each so copious that, in comparison with their utility, all words borrowed from other sources may be treated as inconsiderable additions to our large vocabulary. It has been shown that English words are for the most part easily recognized. Introduction, p. 13; § 28, pp. 153–55, 160; § 37, pp. 170-73; § 39, pp. 178-80. It is not so easy to recognize all the words borrowed directly or indirectly from Latin, though of these a very large number may be readily distinguished. § 29, pp. 155-59, 161; § 38, pp. 173-78; § 40, pp. 199-203; § 42, pp. 212-15. Of the various ways in which Latin words have been altered more or less, in order to make them English, many examples will be found in the first of the three vocabularies appended to this Grammar. In several of the observations there prefixed to the several lists of words, their processes of change are briefly noticed; in other remarks the historical interest belonging to certain studies of words is indicated. Grammar here leads to higher studies of language, and these may lead on to inquiries of the highest importance to questions concerning the authority of some writings accepted as historical, such as the Life of Ælfred' ascribed to ASSER; and to researches respecting the true sources of all that is good in our modern civilization. Errors, in many instances not intended, have been widely spread by able historical writers, who were not well enough prepared for their work by previous studies; especially by studies of old languages containing evidence by which assertions like several of those made by TACITUS (in his Germania ') must be confronted. 439 VOCABULARIES. In the first of the appended vocabularies the initial words are English; in the second they are Latin, and a few Greek words are given with their meanings in the third. The Teutonic words already classified are numerous, and consequently hardly any are noticed here, excepting such as might be mistaken for words borrowed from Latin or from French. Since the time when some parts of this work were written, great improvements have been made in English vocabularies, especially in the glossarial indexes appended to certain well-known Specimens of Early English.' Facts rarely understood a few years ago are now made commonplace, and no brief vocabulary of English words can have much utility. Their various forms and uses are never shown so clearly as in the pages of a glossarial index. Accordingly, references have been given to several works having the highest utility for all who would know the history of our native words. [§ 39, pp. 183, 194, 195, 198.] Next to our own Teutonic words, those chiefly requiring notice are the words distinguished in the following classification. 1. Latin words-especially verb-stems and supine-stems, with their vowel-changes in compounds-are most extensively employed in compound forms. [Vocabulary II.] 2. Of many Latin words the forms have been considerably changed in coming through the medium of Old French. Many examples are given in the first vocabulary. 3. There are Old French words of which the sources are not readily found in dictionaries of classical Latin. Of these many are found in dictionaries of Late or Medieval Latin. 4. In Old French and in Late Latin some words are found containing Teutonic stems, among them several so disguised that they might possibly be mistaken for Latin. These also are found in dictionaries of Late or Medieval Latin. 5. A few Greek words, employed mostly in writings on arts and sciences, are established as parts of the English language. [Vocabulary III.] As compared with the forms here classified, other borrowed words Arabic and Hebrew, for example-have but slight importance in the history of the language. Lastly there must be named a miscellaneous class of words, containing some of which the sources are doubtful, others of which the original forms and meanings are discovered only by historical research. Among the latter several are proper names of persons or of places, and some have reference to forgotten events and circumstances. There are about two hundred Latin words-nouns, adjectives, and verbs—that are the sources of several thousands of English words. The means by which the few here give rise to the many are chiefly these:-alterations made in stems, in derivation, and in composition. The extensive uses of Latin suffixes and prefixes have been noticed. [§§ 29, 31, 38.] The infinitive forms of Latin verbs have been divided into four classes, represented by the words amare, monere, regĕre, audire. By casting off the last syllable of the infinitive we have the verb-stem employed in the present tense. Thus in amā-re we have ama, the stem seen in the first person plural of the present-amā-mus. As already noticed, the stem-vowel is often changed in a compound. [§ 40.] Many English words have their sources in the supinestems of Latin verbs. [§ 40; Vocabulary II.] Adverse is related to verto, but the supine-stem versum is the form to which the word strictly belongs. To the stem of the supine rectum belong the two participles recturus and rectus. Supine-stems of Latin verbs ending in t-are or in s-āre are the sources of several English verbs borrowed directly or from the French. Lat. tractare, Fr. traiter, E. treat. But there are some English verbs ending in ate that are merely imitations, and do not represent any Latin verbs. These are examples :-expatriate, indurate, insulate. Latin verbs made from nouns, and including the suffixes ic and ig, are the sources of some English verbs borrowed directly, and of others that have come through the medium of French. Lat. castigare, 2. castigatum; E. castigate. Lat. judicare, Fr. juger, E. judge. Several verbs ending in ish belong to French verbs including iss in some of their forms, though it is seldom seen in the infinitive. It represents the Latin verb-suffix esc. Lat. nutrire, O. Fr. nurir, E. nourish Fr. finir (pl. 1st pers. pres. ss-ons), E. finish. Several English verbs are made by adding the ending ize to stems borrowed from Latin nouns and adjectives. = The ending ize the French iser and the Greek Sew. Lat. fraternus, E. fraternize. Lat. tempus (Gen. temporis), E. temporize; Lat. fertilis, E. fertilize; Lat. generalis, E. generalize. Of the English verbs ending in y some represent French verbs ending in ier and oier. O. Fr. carier, E. carry; Fr. varier, E. vary; Fr. remédier, E. remedy. Of the English verbs ending in fy and ply, some represent compound Latin verbs ending in ficare or in plicare, which are represented by fier and plier in French. Lat. magnificare, Fr. magnifier, E. magnify; Lat. multiplicare, Fr. multiplier, E. multiply. In English, as in Old French, the stems of many nouns are borrowed from the oblique cases of Latin nouns. [Vocabulary II.] In the second vocabulary nominative forms are given for the sake of brevity. Oblique forms are noticed in the following examples, where N.=nominative and A. = accusative. Lat. N. virgo, A. virgin-em; O. Fr. virge (and virgine), E. virgin. Omissions and additions of letters in English forms of French words have been noticed. Besides these many alterations of vowels and consonants occur. A liquid, a labial, a dental, or a guttural serves sometimes instead of a letter belonging to its own class of sounds; sometimes for one of another class. [§ 41.] Lat. posterula, Fr. posterle, E. pos- | Lat. deliciæ, O. Fr. deleit, E. delight. L.L. cussinus, Fr. coussin, E. cushion. tern. Lat. perdix, Fr. perdrix, E. partridge. Lat. capsa, Fr. casse, E. cash. L.L. gabusia, Fr. cabus, E. cabbage. Lat. salsisia, Fr. saucisse, E. sausage. L.L. carrochium, Fr. carrosse, E. coach. In order to find the simple forms and first meanings of many borrowed words, Latin changes of vowels in compounds should be especially noticed. An elementary knowledge of the Latin declensions of nouns and the conjugations of verbs will be found very useful. For exercises in finding the sources and the first meanings of borrowed words the examples already given are numerous. [§§ 38, 40, 42.] Of many words the sources may be found in Vocabulary II. Among the words of which the sources are Latin many borrowed from Old French are so far changed that their original forms are not in all instances easily discovered. The means of alteration and the motives are various, but among the latter one is so general that its character may be readily shown by a reference to our own dialects. Economy in their uses of vowel-sounds is their most remarkable trait. In certain districts hardly more than one vowelsound (a in far) would be used by a native in talking of a wall all round about the town.' A liking for ease in speaking is the motive. The rudiments of the meanings expressed in numerous Latin compounds are mostly found in a comparatively small number of short words—nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Where these are not well understood, their compounds are vaguely employed. [pp. 16, 202-3.] For a moment let it be supposed that take, with suitable variations, is substituted for capio and its variations. At once the meanings of many compounds are made clear. Our dictionaries contain numerous words that live only in books. The common notions of the people, expressed in their language of daily life, are not numerous. Those of the more educated classes, who freely employ Latin, are in most instances neither higher nor better, but are less evident, and therefore are called 'refined. Latin words serve as convenient disguises, because their first meanings are dimly seen. To a Roman rustic, in ancient times, the word humilis (humble) would mean lying on the ground,' and for a Greek Taπevós would mean nothing better. Christianity has so far altered the ancient meanings of several words as to lead to mistakes in translating some passages in classical authors. The meanings as well as the forms of many words are naturally variable, and pass through transitions made partly in accordance with changes of opinion. Meanwhile other words represent institutions, habits, and ideas that from age to age remain firm, and impart some likeness of their own stability to the forms by which they are denoted. The conclusion is named here as showing one of the chief interests attending the study of a language, especially our own. Almost two thousand years ago the general law of variability in the uses of words was noticed by HORACE, who spoke of words fading like the foliage of summer. In our own language the noun schrift, once popular, and often used in the Persones Tale, quite obsolete, and its fate has obviously not been accidental. The word humility, as employed in Christian teaching, has a meaning that did not belong originally to the Latin adjective humilis. There are medieval Latin writings that no good scholar would attempt to translate into classical Latin, such as could have been understood by educated men in the time of CICERO. The ideas intended to be conveyed |