Examples.-1. "You and I will travel together." Many grammarians insist that, in cases of this kind, we are to regard the sentence as a contraction of two sentences joined by and. This explanation might do very well for such a sentence as "John and William are eleven years old "—that is, John is eleven years old, and William is eleven years old "--but it is simply absurd when applied to such a sentence as "Two and three make five," or "He and I are of the same age; ""Blue and yellow make green." --C. P. MASON. The fury of the Russians and the obstinacy of the Turks made the conflict dreadful.' 'In this painting lights and shades are well blended.' 'He has blended well the lights and the shades in this painting.' He sells good books and bad books.' He is a faithful and industrious servant.' The sky is blue and clear. The wheat looks strong and healthy.'— G. There lives and works a Soul in all things.'-COWPER. 'He lives and reigns [not reigneth] for ever.' 'They acted cautiously and wisely.'-G.

'Late and soon,

Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers.'-WORDSWORTH. 'Our science itself is but a mixture of light and shade.-G. 'In all things approving ourselves by honour and dishonour, by evil report and good report.'-Bible. *He with his brothers are able to do much.'COBBETT. Here with does not serve well for and. The writer defends the syntax here exemplified.]

2. A simple bed, an arm-chair by its side, and a tiny washing-table, with a small white basin on it and a sponge, is all the furniture.'-G. H. LEWES. [The two parts of the sentence connected by is are like the two sides of an equation.]

'The sceptre, learning, physic, must

All follow this, and come to dust.'-SHAKESPEARE.

'The crafty and the easy, the wise and the foolish, the rich and the poor, shall all appear.'-JER. TAYLOR.

'Oh Life! without thy checkered scene

Of right and wrong, of weal and woe,
Success and failure, could a ground

For magnanimity be found?'-WORDSWORTH.

3. The armour of righteousness on the right hand and on the left.... In returning and rest shall ye be saved; in quietness and in confidence shall be your strength. In the evening, and morning, and at noon-day will I pray.'-Bible. For a man to write well there are. required, to read the best authors, observe the best speakers, and much exercise of his own style.'-BEN JONSON. [Here the ordinary noun exercise is awkwardly linked with two verbal nouns, each having the infinitive form.] 'To be a well-favoured man is the gift of fortune; but to write and read comes by nature.'-SHAKESPEARE. [See § 46, Phrases, 3, 4.]

SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

Observations.-1. For conjunctive and subordinative uses of particles Old English had many forms, especially compounds, that have become obsolete, and others of which vestiges remain in modern literature. Among the latter the forms most notice

able are those which show the extensive employment of that -a particle that in E.II. might serve to introduce a clause of almost any kind. Alone, or aided by another particle, that served to link numerous clauses severally denoting antecedence, duration, consequence, concession, causality, and finality.

2. Words serving as links of clauses in Modern English may be divided into two classes, the first (a) including relative pronouns and adverbs, the second (b) including words more strictly called conjunctions-as, because, except, if, lest, though, unless, while, and that when it introduces a substantive-clause or an adverbial-clause. But in several respects all the words used as links of clauses are like one another. Each refers to some element not contained within the clause itself. This element is a substantive word when the clause is attributive. In other instances reference may be made to a predicative verb, or to a vague verb taken with its complement; but there are examples where the clause is related to the verb taken together with an adverbial or with an object. [See § 47, Clauses, 1, a.]

The link shows that the clause itself is intended to serve as a noun, or as an adjective, or as an adverb. Each link may connect together a main sentence and a clause; elements having distinct relations, and verbs differing in mood, or in tense, or in both. In these respects clause-links are all unlike the conjunction and. Their special uses have been shown in numerous examples of clauses serving respectively as nouns, as adjectives, and as adverbs.

NOUN-CLAUSES, employed as subjects and as objects, have for their connectives how, that, what, when, where, whether, which, who, and why. [§§ 44 and 48, Clauses.]

ATTRIBUTIVE-CLAUSES have for their connections how, that, when, whence, where, wherefore, wherein, who, whom, whose, and why. [§ 45, Clauses.]

ADVERBIAL-CLAUSES have for their connectives after, albeit [old], although, an or and [old = if ], as [with several distinct uses], because, before, except, if, lest, since, than, that, the [as employed in the more], though, unless, when, where, whether, while. [§ 47, Clauses.]

3. The conjunction and may connect together two clauses, when they belong to one class, and have a common relation. When placed before a relative, and should introduce the second of two attributive clauses. And should not be employed to link a clause with a phrase.

4. The particle as, employed in clauses as well as in phrases, has uses remarkably various. It occurs often in adverbial-phrases of reference ['as to,' 'as regards ']; in others

it points to the manner, or to the result of an act ['He acted so as to win praise']; in others it points to some reason founded on the capacity of an agent ['Let me, as an older man, advise you ']. In some clauses as, placed after such, serves instead of who. In many elliptical clauses of comparison as refers to some word not expressed in the clause, but corresponding to a word employed in the main sentence. Ellipsis often suggests errors in grammar, and these are rather numerous in clauses introduced by a conjunctive as following an adverbial use of the same particle and denoting equality.

5. Clauses of comparison introduced by than are mostly elliptical, and here again ellipsis often suggests errors in grammar. Than, as placed here and there, looks like a preposition.

'Than whom.' This exceptional sequence has been noticed. [§ 49, Sequences, 3, f.]

Examples.-1. pat [= So that] at the last þai ordeind tuelue [twelve].' -Cursor Mundi. Whils that the peple of Israel passeden the see.' MANDEVILLE. 'Sith that I have told yow Whan that dame Prudence saugh hire tyme. .. Though that ye han sworn.'-Tale of Melibeus. 'That that I did, I was set on to do't by Sir Toby.'--SHAKESPEARE. 'Paul, after that the governor had beckoned unto him to speak, answered Before that certain [men] came from James, he [Peter] did eat with the Gentiles. It was told me how that the Jews laid wait for the man. So that they fled out of the house. Until that an offering should be offered for every one of them.'--Bible.

2. Verbs differing in mood or in tense are set in Italic. I give thee charge that thou keep this commandment.'—Bible. 'It is thought [that] he perished by poison.'-ALG. SYDNEY. 'Herostratus lives that burned

the temple of Diana.'-SIR T. BROWNE. 'It is not true that he said that.'-C. P. MASON. [See §§ 44, 45, 47, Clauses.]

3. They heard that some ships had been wrecked, and that others had lost their anchors.' [And connects two objective clauses.] He was a man who acted uprightly and [who] cared for his neighbour.' [And connects two attributive-clauses, as again in the next excerpt.] Our old friend, who had been well acquainted with our circumstances, and who had so far guided us, was then called away.' *The captain, a brave man, and who had often risked his life, escaped without a wound.' [Omit and.] 'He ran as fast as he could and until his strength failed.' [And connects two adverbial-phrases.] *I find in my neighbour a man always acting honestly and who minds his own business.' [Place 'who' next to man;' for acting' writes acts.]

• ...

4. Words that have been omitted are here and there placed within brackets. 'Is [His] folc flowe [fled] as hii were agaste [terrified].' -ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. 'The king it wiste, and als-so faste As he which was of hih prudence.'-Gower. Forasmoche as I se your humilité, it constreigneth me to do yow grace.'-Tale of Melibeus. His thoughts are as just, as those of Horace [are just].'-DRYDEN. 'They clung about

him as captives [cling] about their redeemer.'-BURKE. 'The French forces left Scotland as much to their own satisfaction as to that of the nation.'-ROBERTSON. He is as tall as I am [tall]. . . . When I was a child I spake as a child [speaks].-C. P. MASON. The ruby is not as hard as the diamond [is hard].' 'He is not as strong as you [are strong].' 'You are as good a player as he [is a good player].' 'He paid you as well as [he paid] me.' 'It affects your own interests as much as [it affects] mine.' Henry likes work as well as [he likes] play.'—G. *The nations, not so blest as thee [art blest],

Must in their turn to tyrants fall.'-THOMSON. [?]

5. As before, words that have been omitted are here and there placed within brackets. 'Thaim [To them] war leuer [it were more welcome] than al this werd [world].'-Metrical Homilies. Pat kennep [teaches] be in herte, for to loue pi louerd leure [more dearly] þen þi-seluen.'-LANGLAND. A heart dearer than Plutus' mine [is dear], richer than gold [is rich]. If thou cut'st more than [is] a just pound thou diest.'-SHAKESPEARE. 'I understand more than the ancients [understand]. I had rather speak five words with my understanding than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue.'-Bible. He is taller than I am [tall]. is more industrious than [he is] clever.'-C. P. MASON. He helps you more than [he helps] me.' 'He can help you more than I can help you.'— *You are a greater loser than me.' [There is no word, expressed or understood, to govern me. Say. than I am.]

G.

6

...

CO-ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

...

He

Observations. 1.-It has been shown that relative pronouns and adverbs serve largely as connective words of which the uses are subordinative. (a) There are certain particles called co-ordinative conjunctions-and, but, or, nor, and a few others noticed already. [§ 14.]

(b) Of two co-ordinate sentences each may be simple or each may be complex. [§ 43, pp. 235, 243.]

(c) In many co-ordinate sentences the conjunctions that might be employed are omitted. The two sentences may have the same subject, or the same verb. In these cases ellipsis often occurs. [§ 65.] Sometimes the subject and the verb are alike in both, and may be omitted in the second sentence.

2. (a) The verbs in co-ordinate sentences connected by and mostly correspond with each other in mood, and often in tense.

(b) But and sometimes connects sentences of which the verbs differ from each other in mood, or in tense, or in both.

(c) Where the verbs in sentences connected by and differ in mood, or in tense, or in both, and where the assertions made by two verbs are strongly contrasted, their common subject may well be repeated, or an equivalent subject may be employed.

3. The chief uses of co-ordinative conjunctions have been noticed. [§ 14.] A few special observations are here appended.

(a) But-in this respect like for and nor-is often placed next to a full stop and at the beginning of a principal sentence.

(b) Or sometimes connects two names of one thing. Where or connects words of different meanings, either may precede the first. Where the two words are nouns, an article may be repeated.

(c) In M.E. for [= because] is in some places subordinative, just as for alone, and several phrases including for are subordinative in E.II. In other places for is co-ordinative, and comes next to a full stop (a).

In E.I. ealswâ (also) is a conjunctive adverb. In M.E. also sometimes serves instead of and, and translates the German auch (=E.II. ek), but not the German also (= consequently).

In some grammars several adverbial expressions are classified with conjunctions strictly so called. These are specimens:-besides, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

4. (a) The following conjunctions employed in pairs are called correlatives :-both

or (in verse); neither verse). These are co-ordinative.

or; or

and; either

(b) Contrasted adverbs have here and there subordinative uses, in other respects like those of the conjunctions called correlatives. In many places where correlative particles are employed, one introduces a subordinate sentence or clause, the other a principal sentence. In other places each introduces a subordinate sentence or clause.

Examples. 1.-(a) 'Mercy and truth preserve the king, and his throne is upholden by mercy. The lips of the righteous feed many; but fools die for want of wisdom.'-Bible. [Co-ordinate sentences like these are numerous in the Book of Proverbs.]

(b) Every day will I bless thee; and I will praise thy name for ever and ever.'-Bible. This world seems a desert, when we see in it only mountains, rivers, and towns; but when we know that here and there we have friends who, though distant and silent, are caring for us, this world is for us like a home in the midst of a garden.'-G.

(c) 'Many talk of friendship; few understand its essential conditions.' 'For many readers the "Odyssey" is a romance; Horace found in it a series of moral lessons.'-G. 'Read, not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse; but [read] to weigh and consider.'-BACON.

2. (a) I looked into the book, and saw its merit.'-JOHNSON. 'All his excellences, like those of Nature herself, are thrown out together;