Many prepositional phrases are used as adverbs. F.-Daylight suddenly appears, and it brightens the winding stream in the dale.'

The word it is a pronoun, and serves to prevent a repetition of the noun 6 daylight.' 'A pronoun is a word used

instead of a noun.'

Two sentences-the first beginning with the noun 'daylight,' the second with the pronoun-are connected by the word 'and.' A word used to connect two sentences is called a conjunction.

Both Nouns and Pronouns are called Substantive Words. They denote things existing, or supposed to exist.

Adjectives and Adverbs are called Attributive Words.

The verb combines an attribute with an assertion. Ex.: 'bright-ens.'

The chief words are the Noun, the Pronoun, the Adjective, and the Verb. The other parts of speech-the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection--are some

times called Particles.

With the chief words-without the aid of Particles—we can form sentences. C may serve as an example.

The elements of which sentences consist may be expanded with respect to their forms. Several words may be used instead of a noun, or instead of an adjective. But, with respect to their several uses, the parts of a sentence-whatever their forms may be must serve as nouns, adjectives, verbs,

and adverbs.

In writing or speaking of separate words, or syllables, or letters, they are treated as nouns.

Ex.: The word 'and' serves to connect sentences, and sometimes connects words.

ion serves as the ending of many nouns.

a is a vowel.

In the following notes on the parts of speech no attempt is made to give complete definitions.

There are eight parts of speech :—

The first four are the Chief Words in Sentences; the

others are called Particles.

When English words are divided into nine classes, the two adjectives 'an' (or 'a') and 'the' are placed apart from other adjectives, and are called 'Articles.'

A NOUN is a word used as a name.

Any Noun may be made the Subject of a Sentence, No Sentence can be made without the aid of a Noun or a Pronoun.

A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a Noun.

Pronouns are too often and too carelessly used instead of Nouns.

A word that in one place stands instead of a Noun may, in another place, be used with a Noun, and is then called an Adjective.

AN ADJECTIVE is a word used to define a Noun.

An Adjective may be used to denote

quality; Ex.: hard rocks

quantity,, much corn five bells

number

order;
identity
possession,,

Ex.: third class

this man

my watch

Some writers define Adjectives as words added to Nouns, in order to denote their qualities.'

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Other words that define Nouns-though not with respect to their qualities-have been called Adjective-Pronouns,' which (it is said) are of a mixed nature.' One name may be given to a word with respect to its origin, and another with respect to its use in a sentence; but the two names should be kept apart. My-one of the words called 'AdjectivePronouns-is a form of mîn, which in E.I. is a Pronoun but in M.E. the word my is never used instead of a Noun.' [See § 9.]

A VERB is a word that, when rightly placed in connexion with a Noun or a Pronoun, tells something.

Every Concrete Verb (like 'brighten') tells something that is distinct. The Abstract Verb be asserts nothing more than existence.

AN ADVERB is a word used to define an act expressed by a Verb.

This is the chief use of the Adverb; but it may also serve to define an Adjective or an Adverb.

A PREPOSITION is a word placed before a Noun or a Pronoun, to show its relation to some preceding word.

A CONJUNCTION is a word that connects with each other two sentences, or two phrases, or two words.

AN INTERJECTION is a word used to express some emotion. Ex.: 'Oh!'

Parsing shows the parts of speech of which a given sentence consists.

In the simplest mode of Parsing, the words in a given sentence are classified with respect to their several uses. An example is appended :

·

Classify the words used in the following sentences :—' The clear light of sunrise shines over the ridge of the mountain, and brightens the rippling streams in the valley. They glitter in the radiance of the morning.'

Classification.

NOUNS.-'Light,' 'sunrise,' 'ridge,' 'mountain,' 'streams,' 'valley,' radiance,' 'morning.' PRONOUN.

ADJECTIVES.-The,' 'clear,' 'rippling.'

VERBS.- Shines,' brightens,' glitter.'
PREPOSITIONS.- - Of,' 'over,' 'in.'

CONJUNCTION.-' And.'

They.'

8. NOUNS.

The two main divisions of Nouns are called Concrete and Abstract.

CONCRETE NOUNS are names of real objects, including persons, animals, plants, and things called inanimate. Ex.: 'man,' sailor,' 'lion,' 'tree,' 'rose,' 'rock,' 'clay,' 'water.'

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ABSTRACT NOUNS are names of general notions. Ex.: 'truth,' 'justice,' 'whiteness.'

Old English Nouns include a large number of concrete nouns, and as almost all the pronouns and the particles in our language and numerous adjectives and verbs belong to Old English, we can write and speak of realities, or the objects of sense, and generally of any common affairs of life, without using any words borrowed from Latin. The following quotation, which does not contain one word bor

rowed from Latin or from French, may be given as an example:- The Englishman's herds, still grazing in his fields and meadows, gave him milk and butter, meat and wool; the herdsman watched them in the spring and summer; the ploughman drew his furrows; the reaper plied his scythe, piled up sheaves, and hauled his wheat, oats, and rye to the barn.'

Abstract Nouns in Old English were sometimes formed by the aid of the final syllables (or suffixes) dôm, hâd, nes, scipe, and others, of which modern forms are still used-'dom,' 'hood,' 'ness,' 'ship,' etc. But in general our Old English nouns are concrete, or serve as names of real objects, and our more convenient forms of abstract nouns are borrowed from Latin. [See § 40.]

CONCRETE NOUNS belong respectively to the following classes:

Proper Names, or names appropriated to individuals, either persons or places:- Harold,' Hastings.'

Class Names, or names common to many objects belonging to one kind :-'rock,' ' tree,' 'river,' 'man.'

Collective Names, or names of several or many objects, collected and viewed as a whole-crowd,' flock,' 'herd,' 'army.'

Names of Materials, or substances of which things are made: gold,'' iron,'' silver,' wool.'

ABSTRACT NOUNS belong respectively to the following classes :

Names of Qualities, viewed apart from substances and existing only as notions:-'youth,' ' beauty,' 'kindness.'

Names of States, or modes of existence, and names of periods: rest,' life-time."

Names of Actions, viewed apart from agents :— 'living,' 'growing,' 'growth.'

VERBAL NOUNS.-Many Verbal Nouns, or names of actions, have in M.E. the ending ing, which takes the place of ende and inde, or (in one dialect) ande, in E.I. and E.II. But many words having the ending ing are commonly used as adjectives. Nouns of this form are called Verbal Nouns, and adjectives having the same form are called Verbal Adjectives. Of the nouns ending in ing some represent

Ꭰ

E.I. nouns formed from verbs, and having the ending ung or ing. Whatever its origin may be, a M.E. word having the ending ing is classified with respect to its uses in the construction of sentences, and is called respectively a noun or an adjective.

The following sentences contain examples of verbal nouns:-' Walking is good exercise.' 'He teaches writing.' 'You have won the prize for drawing.'

'To write' is a verbal noun. Ex. He is learning to write.'

VARIOUS USES OF ONE WORD.-A word mostly used as a noun may, without any change of form, be transferred to another class.

The transfer may be permanent, or may be occasional. Thus the noun ceáp (= a bargain) is obsolete, and 'cheap is an adjective; but such words as 'gold' and 'silver' may be employed, sometimes as nouns, sometimes as adjectives.

Many words used as nouns are also used as verbs. Ex.: 'dawn,' 'hand,' 'land,' 'mind,' 'sail,' 'sound.'

A word mostly serving as a noun takes sometimes the place of an adverb. Ex.: 'He went home.'

An abstract noun may be made concrete.

a fine building' (i.e. a house).

A proper noun may be made common. a Milton (i.e. a poet like Milton).

Ex.: This is

Ex.: He is not

A common noun may become a proper noun. Ex.: 'The Prince' (of Wales being understood).

9. PRONOUNS.

*PRONOUNS are words of which the original forms belong to E.I.

In some examples these forms have been changed more or less, as the following table may show. Some variations of forms belonging to E.II. are placed in curves.