cōntrā (='against'). Ex.: 'cóntraband,' 'contradiction,' ' cóntrast.'

The modifications contro' and 'counter' appear incóntrovert, 'counterpoint,' 'counterpart,' and 'counterpoise.' In book-keeping, the adverbial phrase per cóntra = on the other side.

dē (from' or 'forth'). Ex.: dedúce,' 'dedúct,' 'defáce,' 'deprive,'' deríve.'

This de, serving to denote derivation, as well as the notion of privation, is not always easily distinguishable from de, used in Old Fr., in stead of the Lat. dis, and denoting division, as in 'decompóse' and 'detách.'

demi, Fr. (Gr. = 'half'); Ex.: 'démigod,' 'demisémiquáver.' The prefix semi' is more frequently used, Ex.: sémicircle,' sémicolon.'

dia (Gr. diά = 'through'). Ex.: 'diámeter.'

dis, di (= 'asúnder') keeps its form and its first meaning in 'dissént,'' dissolve,'' disténd,' 'distract.' It serves to express privation and negation in 'disárm' and 'displéase.'

The euphonic changes of dis to di and dif are seen in 'diláte,' 'divérge,' 'differ,' diffuse,' difficulty.' The modification de is used in 'decompose,' 'defy,' 'deploy,' 'detách,' and the Old French form des remains in déscant' (a noun).

ec, el (Gr. Ek = Latin ex = 'out'). Ex.: ellipsis.'

en, em, Fr. (= 'in'). Ex.: 'embárk,' 'enclósure,' 'enjóin,' ́ enthróne,' 'entitle,' ' envélope.'

The Latin in sometimes takes the place of the French en, as in 'intitle' and 'inthróne.'

enter (Fr. entre = 'between,' ' among') serves as a substitute for the Latin 'inter' in 'entertáin' and 'énterprise.' epi (Gr. iní = 'upon '). Ex.: 'épitaph.'

eu (Gr. Ev = 'well,' or 'agréeable'). Ex.: 'euphonic '= sounding well.

ex (='out') retains its first meaning in 'exémpt,' 'expátriate,' 'expórt,' 'ex-président,' etc.

The notion of fulfilment or completion is expressed in other words, as in effect' and 'elaborate,' while excess is denoted in 'exórbitant.'

The x is sometimes changed, for the sake of euphony, into 'f' and 's,' as in 'efface,'' effect,' escape,'eschéat,' and essay' (the verb), and x is omitted in 'elaborate,' 'élegant,' 'elocútion,' etc. Ec ex in 'ecstátic.'

extra beyond.' Ex.: 'extradítion,' 'extraordinary.'

=

In the phrase 'no extra charge made,' extra is used as an adjective. hemi (Gr. μ'half'). Ex.: 'hémisphere.'

hyper (Gr. Vépover'). Er.: hyperbólical.'
hypo (Gr. ó'under'). Ex.: hypothesis.'

in (in' or 'into '), when prefixed to verbs, strengthens their meaning, especially with respect to notions of transition and inclosure. Examples of the former use are supplied by 'inváde,' 'injéct,' 'infatuate,' while the notion of inclosure is expressed in the words 'innáte' and 'incarceration.'

Modifications of in are seen in 'illúmine,' impóverish,' 'irrádiate.'

in (= 'not,' or the English prefix un), when prefixed to nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, contradicts their meanings. Ex.: inglórious.'

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Besides the modifications il, im, and ir, the contradictory in has the form ig, seen in 'ignorant' and 'ignominy.'

inter (='between,' or 'among'). Ex.: íntercourse,’ 'interjéction,' 'ínterlude,' 'internátional,' 'interpóse.'

In the noun 'intellect,' the prefix inter is changed by assimilation. intro (Lat. adv.; intèr, intră, prep. ='within'). Ex.: 'introdúce,' 'introspéction,' ' introvért.'

jūxtā (='near3). Ex.: juxtaposition.'

mălě, mal (= 'ill,' 'bad'). Ex.: maladministration,' 'málecontent' (or 'málcontent'), ' malévolent.'

meta (Gr. μεrá=' after,' but has other meanings, of which some imply change, or transition). Ex.: metamorphosis.' mis (Old Fr. mes, from the Lat. minus, in meaning the First English mis). Ex.: misadventure,' 'mischánce.' nē (= not'). Ex.: 'nefárious,' neutral.'

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=

non (='not'). Ex.: nonconfórmist,' ' non-éntity,'' nonesséntial,' ‘nónjuror,' ' nonparéil,' 'non-résident,' 'nonsense,'

'nónsuit.'

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6

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ob (against,' 'towards,' and 'in the way') becomes, by assimilation, oc,' of,' 'or,' 'op.' Ex.: óbvious,' 'occúr,' 'offénd,' 'oppóse.'

par, in the verb 'párboil,' is apparently equivalent to 'part.'

=

para (Gr. πapá 'beside,' but sometimes implies contradiction). Ex.: páradox' an opinion opposed to commonly accepted notions.

=

pen (Lat. paeně, Fr. pén almost '). Ex.: 'península,' 'penúltimate.'

pěr, par (= 'through') denotes extension and completion in the words 'pérfect,'pérmeate,' 'perváde.'

In the adverb 'peradventure' the prefix = 'by,' or ' by means of.' These

meanings are not seen in the words 'párdon' and 'pérjury.' In pellucid' (= thoroughly clear) the final consonant of the prefix is changed by assimilation to 1 in 'lúcid' (= clear).

peri (Gr. Tepi

'round about '). Ex.: perímeter.'

plu (Lat. plus = 'more'). Ex.: 'pluperfect.'

pre (Lat. prae='in front of '). Ex.:prevént.' preter (Lat. praeter = 'past, 'by-gone,' 'beyond '). Ex.: 'preternátural,'preterpluperfect.'

prō (='forth,' 'forward,' ' instead of '). Ex.: 'procéed,' 'procónsul,' 'prógress,' 'protrúde,' 'providence.'

The French form 'pur' appears in purchase,' 'púrport,' 'púrpose, and 'por' occurs in " 'portrait.'

pro (like con) is used as a noun and as an adjective in the phrases 'the pro's and the con's;' i. e. the arguments pro and con.'

pōst (='after'). Ex.: pósthumcus,' postpóne,' 'póstscript.'

rě (='back' or 'again'). Ex.: reappoint,' 'recéde,' 'renéw,' 'resíst,' 'retúrn.'

In some words re merely strengthens the meaning, as in rejoice.' Before a vowel d is added to re in 'redéem' and 'rédolent.'

rear (Old Fr. arere and rere = 'backward,' 'behind '). Ex.: rear-ádmiral,' 'réar-guard,' ' réar-rank.'

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rētrō (= 'backward'). Ex.: rétrograde,' 'rétrospect.' sē, sēd (= ‘apart'). Ex.: 'secéde,' ́seclúde,'' sedítion,' 'seléct,'' séparate.'

In 'sedition' a d is added to the particle. In 'secure' the particle se and the whole word have changed their first meaning: se-cura = 'apart from care.' Secure' now means 'safe.'

sēmĭ (= Gr. μ="half"). Ex.: sémicirque,' 'sémiquaver,'' sémitone." [See demi.]

The notion of inferiority in rank is expressed in súbaltern,' 'subórdinate,'' sub-prior,' and that of diminution is implied in subtract.' The modifications of this prefix are caused by assimilation before c, f, g, m, p, and r. Ex.: 'succumb,'' súffix,' 'suggést,' súmmons,' 'support,' súrro

gate,'' suspension.'

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sübter (='under'). Ex.: súbterfuge,' 'subterránean.' super (above or over'). Ex.: supérfluous,' 'superintendent,'' supernátural.'

The Fr. form sur appears in 'surface,'' súrplice,'' surprise.'

N

་

supra (= 'above') is used in the noun 'supralapsárians' and in the adjective'supramundane.' The noun is the name of a sect.

syl, sym, syn (Gr. oúv and Eúv = 'together with '). Ex.: 'syllable,'' sympathy,' 'sýntax,' 'synthesis.'

=

'Syntax' that part of Grammar which treats of words, phrases, and sentences, as placed together with other words, phrases, and sentences. trāns (across '). Ex.: 'transcríbe,'' tránsient,'' transítion,'' translátion.'

The modification 'tra' is found in 'tradúce,' and the Fr. form 'tres' appears in 'tréspass.'

ūltrā (= 'beyond'). Ex.: 'ultra-líberal,' 'ultramaríne' (a blue pigment), 'ultramóntane' (= beyond the Alps), ultramúndane' (= beyond the visible world).

= extreme.

In the first of the examples given the meaning of the prefix The word ultramóntane' has reference to Rome, and in controversy is used to denote the whole system of ecclesiastical government of which Rome is the centre.

vice (Lat. vice instead of '). Ex.: 'vice-ádmiral,' vice-président,' 'více-roy.'

vis (Old Fr. = the Lat. vĭcě). Ex.: víscount.'

Of the rules prescribed for Divisions of Syllables, in writing and printing, the most important are those founded on a correct knowledge of Suffixes and Prefixes. [See §§ 40 and 42.]

39. SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

FIRST ENGLISH and LATIN are the two main sources of words in Modern English. To the first belong many concrete or realistic words; to the second many words having abstract or general meanings.

The word English has two meanings. It serves, first, as a name for the Teutonic tongue more strictly called First English and often called Anglo-Saxon; secondly, as a name for the composite tongue of which First English and Latin are the two chief sources. The context will here prevent confusion of the two meanings.

TO FIRST ENGLISH belong the oldest forms of numerous nouns serving as names of appearances, sounds, and transitions in the external world collectively called Nature, such names as 'earth,'' heaven,' 'sun,' ' day,' 'moon,' 'stars,' 'fire,' 'light,' 'sunrise, sunset,' 'twilight, night,' water,' springs,' 'wells,' 'waterfalls,' 'land,' 'sea, thunder,' 'lightning,' 'wind,' 'storm,' 'rain,' 'hail,'' snow.'

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M names of plants and trees and of their several

parts:-ash,' 'birch,' bloom,' 'blossom,' 'root,' 'stem,' 'stalk,' 'leaf,' 'twig,' 'sprig,' 'spray,' 'rind,' ' bark,' 'hay,' 'straw,' 'chaff.’

Some names of wild and tame quadrupeds :-' horse,' 'hound,'' cow,'' sheep,' 'swine,'' boar,' 'wolf,' 'fox,'' hare,' 'deer,'' marten.'

Some names of birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects:- -'hawk,' 'raven,'' crow,'' starling,' ' bittern,' crane,' owl,'' sparrow,' 'lark,' and 'nightingale;' 'fish,' 'whale,' 'worm,' 'snake,' 'fly,' 'bee,'' grasshopper.'

Names for parts of the human body:-'head,'‘eye,' 'brow,' ' ear,' 'mouth,' ' nose,' 'hand,'' foot,' etc.

Many verbs serving to express physical acts:—' run,' 'leap,'come,'go,' 'take,' make,' break,' work,' 'creep,' 'smite,'' grasp,' gather,' etc. [See 20, § 21.]

*

Many adjectives denoting natural qualities:-'hard,' 'healthy' (or 'hale '), 'swift,' 'fair,' 'dreary,' 'stony,' 'good,' 'bad,' 'green,' 'white,' 'blue,' 'yellow,' 'growing,' 'blooming.'

Many names of buildings and their furniture:-' house,' 'barn,' beam,'' gable,' 'roof,' 'door,'' stool,' ' bench,' ' bed,' 'loom,'' board,' 'dish,' etc.

Names of agricultural implements, etc. :- plough,'' harrow,' 'share,'' sickle,' ' gear,' wain,' 'wheel,' spoke.'

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Some names belonging to navigation :-' keel,' 'boat,' stern,'' stem,' ' rudder,' 'oar,' 'sail,' and 'sound.'

Household names :-' father,' ' mother,'' husband,' ‘wife,' 'brother,'' sister,' 'friend,' gossip,' ' neighbour,'' godfather,' 'godmother,' kinsman,' kindred.'

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Adjectives denoting moral qualities:- 'good,' 'bad,' 'right,' 'wrong,' 'holy' (= morally healthful '), 'kind,' ‘true,' ' mild,' 'steadfast.'

Some of the chief topics of discourse may be placed in the following

order :

:

1. Nature

2. Physical life

3. Domestic life

4. Warfare

5. Government

6. Morality

7. Religion

8. The Church

9. Art, Poetry 10. Philosophy

By means of this order the topics to which First English words mostly belong may be readily shown. They are abundant in the departments indicated by the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4, and they are less numerous in the departments denoted by the numbers 5 and 6. To the sections of which the numbers are 7, 8, 9, and 10 a comparatively scanty vocabulary belongs.

First English Stems are partly known by their forms, and by their connexion with English Suffixes and Prefixes, in derivative and in compound words. [See §§ 28, 30, and 37.]