tree, or, at best, is only a wooden frame sixteen or eighteen feet long, in the form of a ladder, which is drawn by four oxen, and driven by two men, who add to its effectiveness by standing upon the instrument. Dr. Buchanan, in the account of his Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar,' closes a very disparaging account of Indian husbandry with the following remarks:

"I am afraid, however, that the reader, in perusing the foregoing accounts, will have formed an opinion of the native agriculture still more favourable than it deserves. I have been obliged to use the English words ploughings, weedings, and hoeings, to express operations somewhat similar that are performed by the natives; and the frequent repetitions of these, mentioned in the accounts taken from the cultivators, might induce the reader to imagine that the ground was well wrought, and kept remarkably clean. Quite the reverse, however, is the truth. Owing to the extreme imperfection of their implements, and want of strength in their cattle, a field, after six or eight ploughings, has numerous small bushes remaining as upright in it as before the labour, while the plough has not penetrated above three inches deep. The plough has neither coulter nor mould-board to divide and to turn over the soil, and the handle gives the ploughman very little power to command its direction. The other instruments are equally imperfect, and are more rudely formed than it was possible for my draughtsman to represent*."

The only circumstance which is stated favourable to the agricultural skill of the Hindus, is the existence of contrivances for irrigating the lands in seasons of drought. This process is effected by means of tanks, which are maintained under the compulsory * Vol. i. p. 126.

regulations of the governments, whose revenues depend upon the produce of the soil.

It remains to trace the distribution of the Cerealia throughout America. The highest limit for the cultivation of these plants on that vast continent is in the more southern portion of the Russian possessions, situated between 57° and 58° of north latitude, where barley and rye are brought to maturity. On the more eastern coast of America, the same cultivation rarely succeeds higher than 50° or 51°.

In the United States, wheat and rye grow as in the more temperate regions in Europe; and it is perhaps owing to faulty methods of tillage, occasioned by the great abundance of land and the dearness of labour, that the produce bears a small proportion when compared with that obtained from cultivating the same extent of land in Europe. Great improvements in this respect have already been introduced; and when population shall be found, as in older settled countries, pressing against the means of subsistence, there is no reason why the lands should not be made as productive generally, as they are in the carefullycultivated districts of this country. Maize is very extensively raised in the United States, and in the southern parts of the Union rice is also very largely cultivated.

Canada produces wheat in sufficient abundance to supply its own population, and to make large occasional shipments to the mother-country, where this produce is received upon more advantageous terms as regards the duty payable on importation, than wheat the produce of any part of the continent of Europe. In proportion as the lands of Canada are cleared of their timber, we may expect that a larger amount of grain will be spared by that province for consumption in Europe; unless the tide of emigration

should continue to set more and more strongly towards that quarter, so as to call for a proportionately increased quantity of grain for the sustenance of the settlers.

Humboldt, in his account of New Spain, has given a very interesting view of the agriculture of South America. In the lower latitudes of the Mexican republic, the cereal grains of Europe, comprehending under this denomination wheat, barley, oats, and rye, are never cultivated at a lower elevation than from 2500 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea. It is well known that the habitation of plants is determined, in a very decided manner, by the elevation of different regions. On this subject De Candolle calculates, that in France every five hundred and forty feet of vertical elevation is equivalent to a receding of one degree from the equator; while Humboldt estimates every rise of three hundred and ninety-six feet to be equal to the same advance to the north, in tropical countries. We know that the summits of the towering Andes-some of which are placed almost directly under the equatorial line-are yet covered with perpetual snow; and that in many mountainous countries within the tropics, the seeds and fruits of temperate regions are seen to flourish.

On the declivity of the Cordilleras, between Vera Cruz and Acapulco, wheat cultivation does not in general commence at a lower level than 4000 feet. Sometimes, as in the immediate vicinity of the city of Xalapa, wheat is sown, not for the sake of the grain, which indeed it there never produces, but because the straw and succulent leaves furnish excellent fodder for cattle.

It does not appear, however, that the degree of latitude and the amount of elevation are the only circumstances that determine the fructification of wheat, since in Guatemala, which is near to the equator,

and at a much lower level than Xalapa, that grain comes to full perfection. Humboldt offers, as reasons for this variance from the usual rule, the exposed situation of the district, and the prevalence of cool winds, which serve to modify the otherwise unfavourable influence of the climate. "I have seen,"

that

says this observant traveller, "in the province of Caraccas, the finest harvests of wheat near Victoria, (latitude 10° 13') at 500 or 600 metres (1640 or 1968 feet) of absolute elevation; and it the wheaten fields which surround the Quatro Villas, appears in the island of Cuba (latitude 21° 58′), have still a smaller elevation. At the Isle of France (latitude 20° 10′) wheat is cultivated on a soil almost level with the ocean *."

Circumstances altogether unconnected with cli mate must be taken into account in determining the relative agricultural capabilities of Mexico, where the absolute absence of rain, throughout a large portion of the time when the plant is on the ground, must be, in a high degree, detrimental to wheat husbandry, unless artificial means were resorted to, as in Nubia, for supplying the natural deficiency of moisture. Throughout a great part the temperate regions of New Spain the farmers are compelled to adopt the system of artificial irrigation. This is effected by the agency of canals and reservoirs, which are supplied from the rivers, and which are so constructed that the water may be dispensed at pleasure over any and every part of the farms.

of

In districts where the system of artificial watering is fully adopted, the fertility of the Mexican farms is extraordinary,far beyond anything experienced in the richest soils of Europe, the wheat harvest being commonly thirty-five and forty for one, and some considerabes yielding even fifty and sixty Humbt's New Spain, p. 454.

measures for one measure of seed. In similar localities, and with land of equal quality, but where no opportunity has been provided for watering the fields, the annual return does not exceed more than fifteen or twenty for one.

Maize is also very extensively cultivated in Mexico; and, from the genial nature of the climate, and the general fertility of the soil, the returns which it yields to the farmer are most abundant. Humboldt informs us that in the valley of Mexico the maize harvest yields two hundred for one. The Indians and Mestizoes, who form a large proportion of the inhabitants of the republic, feed on maize and manihot (cassava), the consumption of wheat being principally confined to the white inhabitants of the towns.

In the temperate and polar districts of the southern hemisphere, the order of cultivation is very similar to that pursued in similar latitudes and elevations north of the tropics. In America wheat is commonly found in the southern provinces of Brazil, in Buenos Ayres, and in Chili. The same grain predominates at the Cape of Good Hope, the flour which it yields being of beautiful quality, and accompanied by less than the usual proportion of bran. In Australia wheat also forms the principal object of cultivation on the part of the settlers; but, in the southernmost portions of that vast island-which, perhaps, it were more correct to call a continent-and in Van Diemen's Land, barley and rye are likewise to be found.