abundant, because those which were not required for human food could be given with much advantage to cattle; and both Pliny and he concur in their testimony, that this produce was esteemed next to corn in utility and value.

The best grew in the country of

the Sabines, and were worth at Rome a sestertius or two-pence each*.

Flowers and Pods of the Turnip.

It is averred that the Roman method of cultivation must have been superior to that of the moderns, since Pliny relates that some single roots weighed as much as forty pounds, a weight far surpassing any which has been obtained by the most skilful modern agricul turists. Indeed, the large size of the Roman turnip is supposed by some authors to furnish a collateral proof of the colder temperature of Italy in ancient than

* Hist. Nat., lib. 18, c. 13, lib. 19, c. 5.

in modern times. Speculations, however, raised upon what might perhaps have been an exaggerated statement of the Roman naturalist must be purely hypothetical. It is certainly found by experience that a warm climate is not so favourable to the growth of the turnip as cold moist regions. Though receiving equally careful culture, it does not attain to the same size in the south as in the north of England and in Scotland, while it thrives best in the west of the latter country, and in those parts of Ireland where the climate is the most humid. Though the colder parts of the temperate regions are found most favourable for this cultivation, the countries of still higher latitudes are not congenial to the growth of the turnip. Those arctic climes where the summer, though brief, is dry and warm, are decidedly adverse to its successful cultivation.

It is very probable that the garden culture of the turnip was introduced by the Romans into this country, and that, like some of the fruit-trees which they had transplanted here, though neglected, it was never altogether lost; and, if appearing to be so for a time, was restored by the monks, those constant guardians and fosterers of horticulture.

There is no doubt that this root was in cultivation in the sixteenth century. Whether revived by native industry, or introduced at that period by the Flemings, is a question differently answered by different writers; nor does the inquiry possess much interest. Turnips were partially grown for many years in this country, before they came into extensive notice. Horticultural pursuits were at that time so little understood and practised here, that even the most successful issue which attended the cultivation of the turnip in Norfolk, a county peculiarly adapted to its growth, failed for a time to be followed by its more extended adoption; and a considerable period elapsed before it travelled out of Norfolk into Suffolk, and thence into Essex.

Towards the latter end of the sixteenth century it is mentioned by more than one writer. Cogan, in his "Haven of Health," published in 1597, says, that

although many men love to eat turnips, yet do swine abhor them." Gerarde, who published in the same year, and who had rather more rational views on the subject of plants, leads us to conclude that more than one variety was cultivated in the environs of London at that time. “The small turnip," says he, "grown by a village near London, called Hackney, in a sandie ground, and brought to the Crosse in Cheapside by the women of that village to be solde, are the best that I ever tasted." Gerarde is silent concerning the field culture of turnips; neither is this mentioned by Parkinson, who wrote in 1629. It is not until the close of the seventeenth century that we can find any account of this root being thus cultivated in any part of the country.

The turnip, in some of its varieties, is of very universal culture throughout Europe. In Sweden it is a very favourite vegetable. We also learn from the interesting journal of Linnæus, that even so far north as Lapmark the colonists sow annually a considerable quantity of turnip-seed, which frequently succeeds very well and produces a plentiful crop. The native Laplanders are so fond of this root that they are often induced to part with a whole cheese in exchange for one single turnip, "than which nothing," our author adds, can be more foolish*"

In Russia, turnips are used as fruit and eaten with avidity by all classes. In the houses of the nobility, the raw turnip cut in slices is handed about on a silver salver, with brandy, as a provocative to the more substantial meal. The first nobleman of the empire," says Dr. Clarke, "when dismissed by his sovereign from attendance upon his person, may be * Vol. i. p. 174.

found throughout the day with his neck bare, his beard lengthened, his body wrapped in a sheep's-skin, eating raw turnips, and drinking quass

It is said that the root of the turnip cultivated in the plains of Germany seldom exceeds half a pound in weight; and that in France and countries still farther to the south they are yet more diminutive. These are, however, no doubt a particular species naturally of a small growth, and it must not thence be inferred that hot countries are wholly inimical to this production. At Benares, in Hindostan, a latitude of about 26°, turnips, radishes, asparagus, cauliflowers, and other garden vegetables are raised in considerable plenty by the natives, and exposed to sale in the bazaars, principally for European purchasers †, to whom these plants of home association are welcome even among the rich display of tropical productions, and even though they cannot be obtained in their native excellence, being comparatively tasteless when raised under the fervid sun of India.

The turnip is a biennial plant; the appearance of . its large radical leaves is familiar to every body, In the second season after sowing, a flowering stem shoots up, which bears flowers having the four petals arranged in the form of a cross, and therefore called cruciform. The varieties both under garden and field culture are very numerous; while these again differ with soil and climate, and manner of cultivation. When destined for human food, of course the quality more than the size is considered; but in raising them as an economic aliment for cattle the greatest possible quantity of nourishment which can be produced in a given space is the object most to be desired. Various sorts, differing in size, shape, and colour, but all assuming, in a greater or less degree, the globular or * Clarke's Travels in Russia, vol. i. p. 46. + Tennant's Indian Recreations.

spheroidal form, are the objects of either garden or field culture. Of these there are ten varieties in common cultivation, distinguished by colour, size, time of coming to maturity, productiveness, or flavour. Among this number, the Maltese golden turnip is a very fine variety, of one uniform orange tinge. It is perfectly spherical, and the crown and tap-root are both so very small, that if dexterously removed the exact parts of the root whence they were divided are not easily discernible. When quite fresh, and just before it has acquired its full consistence, it makes its appearance in the northern parts of the country with the dessert, and it is considered to be superior both in form and flavour to many fruits. The Swedish turnip is another variety of a much larger growth, and of a more hardy nature than any of the other kinds under cultivation; this is very seldom raised among garden vegetables, as it is too strong and harsh be acceptable for human food. It has, however, the advantage of surviving through seasons when even the hardiest of the others would be destroyed. This turnip is largely cultivated in fields and employed as food for cattle.

The root of the French turnip, or naveu, differs from the other varieties, having more the appearance, in shape and size, of the carrot. It is of a very fine flavour, and in high repute on the Continent. When used, the outer rind is not peeled off as in the common turnip, but merely scraped, since the peculiar taste chiefly resides in that part. In France, as well as in Germany, few great dinners are set on the table without this vegetable appearing under some form, either enriching the gravies and stews, or prepared as a viand by itself *. The naveu was more cultivated in this country a century ago than it is at present, being now but rarely found in our gardens.

*Hort, Trans.