rals of the conquering army; and soon after obtained a pardon for all the adherents of Otho. Vitellius was immediately after declared emperor by the senate; and received the marks of distinction which now followed the strongest side. At the same time Italy was severely distressed by the soldiers, who committed such outrages as exceeded all the oppressions of the most calamitous war. Vitellius, who was yet in Gaul, resolved, before he set out for Rome, to punish the prætorian cohorts, who had been the instruments of all the late disturbances in the state. He therefore caused them to be disarmed, and deprived of the name and honor of soldiers. He also ordered 150 of those who were most guilty to be put to death. As he approached towards Rome, he passed through the towns with all imaginable splendor; his passage by water was in painted galleys, adorned with garlands of flowers, and profusely furnished with the greatest delicacies. In his journey there was neither order nor discipline among his soldiers; they plundered wherever they came with impunity; and he seemed no way displeased with their licentiousness. Upon his arrival at Rome he entered the city, not as a place he came to govern with justice, but as a town that became his own by the laws of conquest. He marched through the streets mounted on horseback, all in armor; the senate and people going before him, as if captives of his late victory. He the next day made the senate a speech, in which he magnified his own actions, and promised them extraordinary advantages from his administration. He then harangued the people, who, being now long accustomed to flatter all in authority, highly applauded their new emperor. In the mean time his soldiers, being permitted to satiate themselves in the debaucheries of the city, grew totally unfit for war. The principal affairs of the state were managed by the lowest wretches. Vitellius, more abandoned than they, gave himself up to all kinds of luxury and profuseness: but gluttony was his favorite vice, so that he brought himself to a habit of vomiting, in order to renew his meals at pleasure. His entertainments, though seldom at his own cost, were prodigiously expensive; he frequently invited himself to the tables of his subjects, breakfasting with one, dining with another, and supping with a third, all in the same day. In this manner did Vitellius proceed; so that, Josephus tells us, if he had reigned long, the whole empire would not have been sufficient to have maintained his gluttony. Those who had formerly been his associates were now destroyed without mercy. Going to visit one of them in a violent fever, he mingled poison with his water, and delivered it to him with his own hands. He never pardoned those money-lenders who came to demand payment of his former debts. One of the number coming to salute him, he immediately ordered him to be carried off to execution; but shortly after, commanding him to be brought back, when all his attendants thought it was to pardon the unhappy creditor, Vitellius gave them soon to understand that it was merely to have the pleasure of feeding his eyes with his torments. Having condemned another to

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death, he executed his two sons with him, only for their presuming to intercede for their father. A Roman knight being dragged away to execution and crying out that he had made the emperor his heir, Vitellius desired to see the will, where finding himself joint heir with another, he ordered both to be executed, that he might enjoy the legacy without a partner. By continuing such vices and cruelties as these he became odious, and the astrologers prognosticated his ruin. A writing was set up in the forum, in the name of the ancient Chaldeans, giving Vitellius warning to depart this life by the kalends of October. Vitellius received this information with terror, and ordered all the astrologers to be banished from Rome. A woman having foretold that, if he survived his mother, he should reign many years in happiness, he put her to death, by refusing her sustenance, under the pretence of its being prejudicial to her health. But he soon saw the futility of such prognostics; for his soldiers, by their cruelty and rapine, having become insupportable to the inhabitants of Rome, the legions of the east began to revolt, and soon after resolved to make Vespasian emperor. Vespasian, who was mander against the Jews, had reduced most of their country, except Jerusalem, to subjection; but the death of Nero, and the succession of Galba, gave a temporary check to his conquests as he was obliged to send his son Titus to Rome. Titus, however, being detained by contrary winds, received news of Galba's death before he sailed. He then resolved to continue neuter during the civil war between Otho and Vitellius; and when the latter prevailed he gave him his homage with reluctance. But, being desirous of acquiring reputation, he determined to lay siege to Jerusalem. The murmurings against Vitellius increased every day, while Vespasian endeavoured to advance the discontents of the army, who began at length to fix upon him as the person most capable of terminating the miseries of his country. Not only his own legions, but those in Masia and Pannonia, declared themselves for Vespasian. He was also proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, the army there confirming it with extraordinary applause. Still, however, Vespasian declined the honor; till at length his soldiers compelled him, with threats of immediate death. He now called a council of war: where it was resolved that his son Titus should carry on the war against the Jews; and that Mutianus, one of his generals, should, with great part of his legions, enter Italy; while Vespasian should levy forces in all parts of the east, to reinforce them in case of necessity. Mean time Vitellius resolved to make an effort to defend the empire; and his chief commanders, Valens and Cecina, were ordered to make all preparations to resist the invaders. The first army that entered Italy was under Antonius Primus, who was met by Cecina near Cremona, whom he prevailed upon to change sides, and declare for Vespasian. His army, however, quickly repented of what they had done; and imprisoning their general, though without a leader, attacked Antonius. The engagement continued the whole night in the morning, after a short repast, both armies en

gaged a second time; when the soldiers of Antonius saluting the rising sun, according to cuștom, the Vitellians supposing that they had received new reinforcements, betook them selves to flight, with the loss of 30,000 men. Soon after, freeing Cecina from prison, they prevailed upon him to intercede with the conquerors for pardon; which they obtained, though not without the most horrd barbarities committed in Cremona. When Vitellius was informed of the defeat of his army, his insolence was converted into extreme timidity. At length he commanded Julius Priscus and Alphenus Varus. with some forces that were in readiness, to guard the passes of the Apennines, to prevent the enemy's march on Rome. But, being persuaded to repair to his army in person, his presence only increased the contempt of his soldiers. After a short continuance in the camp, and hearing the revolt of his fleet, he returned to Rome. Every day rendering his affairs more desperate, he made offers to Vespasian of resigning the empire. One Sabinus, who had advised him to resign, perceiving his desperate situation, resolved, by a bold step, to oblige Vespasian, and seized upon the capitol. But he was premature in his attempt; for the soldiers of Vitellius attacked him with great fury, and, prevailing by their numbers, soon laid that building in ashes. During this conflagration, Vitellius was feasting in the palace of Tiberius, and beholding with satisfaction the horrors of the assault. Sabinus was taken prisoner, and shortly after executed. Domitian, Vespasian's son, afterwards emperor, escaped by flight, in the habit of a priest; and all the rest, who survived the fire, were put to the sword. But this success served little to improve the affairs of Vitellius. He vainly sent messenger after messenger to bring Vespasian's general, Antonius, to a compromise. This commander gave no answer to his requests, but continued his march towards Rome. Being arrived before the walls of the city, the forces of Vitellius were resolved upon defending it to the utmost extremity. Attacked on three sides with the greatest fury; the army within, sallying upon the besiegers, defended it with equal obstinacy. The battle lasted a whole day, till at last the besieged were driven into the city, and a dreadful slaughter made of them in the streets. In the mean time, the citizens stood by apparently unconcerned, as if they had been in a theatre, and clapped their hands, first at one party's success, and then at the other's. As either turned their backs, the citizens would fall upon and plunder them. But, what was still more remarkable, during these dreadful slaughters both within and without the city, the people celebrated one of their riotous feasts, called the Saturnalia; so that in various parts might be seen the strange mixture of mirth and misery, profligacy and slaughter; in a word, all the horrors of civil war, and all the licentiousness of the most abandoned security! During this complicated scene, Vitellius retired to his wife's house, upon mount Aventine, designing to fly to the army commanded by his brother at Tarracina. But he changed his inind, and returned to his palace. There, after wandering disconsolate, he hid himself in an

obscure corner, whence he was soon taken by a party of soldiers. Still, willing to add a few hours to his miserable life, he begged to be kept in prison till the arrival of Vespasian at Rome, pretending that he had secrets of importance to discover. But his intreaties were vain; the soldiers binding his hands behind him, and throwing a halter round his neck, led him along, half naked, into the public forum, upbraiding him as they proceeded with all the bitter reproaches that malice could suggest, or his own cruelties deserve. They also tied his hair backwards, as was usual with the most infamous malefactors, and held the point of a sword under his chin, to prevent his hiding his face from the public. Personal indignations were heaped upon him. Some cast dirt and filth upon him as he passed, others struck him with their hands, or ridiculed the defects of his person. At length, being despatched, they dragged his dead body through the streets with a hook, and threw it, with all possible ignominy, into the Tiber. Such was the miserable end of this emperor, in the fiftyseventh year of his age, after a short reign of eight months and five days.

VESPASIAN-The conquering army of Vespasian now pursued their enemies throughout Le city, where neither houses nor temples afforded them refuge. Not only the enemy suffered thus, but many of the citizens, who were obnoxious to the soldiers, were dragged from their houses, and killed. They next began to seek for plunder; the rabble joining in these outrages: some slaves discovered the riches of their masters; some were letected by their nearest friends; and the whole city was filled with outcry and lamentation. At length, however, upon the arrival of Mutiarius, these slaughters ceased, and the state began to wear the appearance of former tranquillity. Vespasian was declared emperor by the unanimous consent both of the senate and the army, and messengers were despatched to him into Egypt, desiring his return. But the winter being dangerous for sailing he deferred his voyage. The dissensions in other parts of the empire also retarded his return; for Claudius Civilis, in Lower Germany, excited his countrymen to revolt, and destroyed the Roman garrisons. To give his rebellion, however, an air of justice, he caused his army to swear allegiance to Vespasian, though he soon disclaimed all submission to his government; and having overcome one or two of the lieutenants, and being joined by such Romans as refused obedience to the new emperor, he boldly advanced to give Cerealis, Vespasian's general, battle. After some temporary reverses Cerealis not only routed the enemy but took and destroyed their camp. The engagement, however, was not decisive; several others ensued, and an accommodation at length took place, when Civilis obtained peace for his countrymen and pardon for himself. During these commotions in Germany the Sarmatians, a barbarous nation in the north-east of the empire, suddenly passed the Iser, and marched into the Roman dominions with such celerity as to destroy several garrisons, and an army under Fonteius Agrippa. However, they were driven back by Rubrius Gallus into their native forests; while several attempts were

made to confine them by garrisons and forts. But these hardy nations, having once found the way into the empire, never after desisted from invading it. Before Vespasian set out for Rome, he gave his son Titus the command of the army that was to besiege Jerusalem; he then went forward, and was met many miles from Rome by all the senate and nearly half the inhabitants. Nor did he in the least disappoint their expectations; being equally prompt to reward merit and pardon his adversaries; in reforming the manners of the citizens and setting them the best example in his own. In the mean time Titus carried on the war against the Jews with that vigor which ended in the total destruction of the city. See Jews. After this his soldiers would have crowned him as conqueror; but he refused the honor, alleging that he was only an instrument in the hand of heaven, that manifestly declared its wrath against the Jews. At Rome, however, all mouths were filled with his praises. His return, therefore, in triumph, with his father, was celebrated with all possible magnificence and joy. Among the rich spoils were vast quantities of gold taken out of the temple, with the book of the Jewish law. A triumphal arch was erected on this occasion, which remains almost entire to this day, and on which were inscribed all the victories of Titus over the Jews. Vespasian likewise built a temple to Peace, wherein were deposited most of the spoils; and, having now calmed all the commotions in the empire, he shut the temple of Janus, which had been open about five or six years. Vespasian, having thus given security and peace to the empire, resolved to correct numberless abuses which had grown up under his predecessors. To effect this with greater ease, he joined Titus with him in the consulship and tribunitial power, and in some measure admitted him a partner in all the highest offices of the state. He began with restraining the licentiousness of the army, and forcing them back to their pristine discipline. He abridged the processes that had been carried to an unreasonable length in the courts of justice. He rebuilt such parts of the city as had suffered in the late commotions; particularly the capitol, which he restored to more than its former magnificence. He likewise built an amphitheatre, the ruins of which are still an evidence of its ancient grandeur. The other ruinous cities of the empire also shared his paternal care; he improved such as were declining, adorned others, and built many anew. In such acts as these he passed a long reign of clemency and moderation; so that it is said no man suffered by an unjust or a severe decree during his administration. Julius Sabinus seems to have been the only person who was treated with greater rigor than usual by this emperor. Sabinus was commander of a small army in Gaul, and had declared himself emperor upon the death of Vitellius. His army, however, was soon after overcome by Vespasian's general, and he himself compelled to fly, For some time he wandered through the provinces, but, finding the pursuit every day become closer, he was obliged to hide himself in a cave: in which he remained concealed for no less than nine years, attended all the time by his faithful wife, who

purchased provisions for him by day, and repaired to him in the night. She was at last discovered in the performance of this pious office, and Sabinus was carried to Rome. Great intercession was made to the emperor on his behalf; Empona herself appearing with her two children, imploring her husband's pardon. But Sabinus had been too dangerous a rival, and he was executed. This seems to be the only instance in which Vespasian resented past offences. He caused the daughter of Vitellius, his avowed enemy, to be married into a noble family, and he himself provided her a suitable fortune. One of Nero's servants coming to beg pardon for having once rudely thrust him out of the palace, and insulted him when in office, Vespasian took his revenge by serving him just in the same manner. When any conspiracies were formed against him, he disdained to punish the guilty, saying, that they deserved rather his contempt for their ignorance than his resentment; as they seemed to envy him a dignity of which he daily experienced the uneasiness. His liberality towards the encouragement of arts and learning, was not less than his clemency. He settled a constant salary of 100,000 sesterces upon the teachers of rhetoric. He was particularly favorable to Josephus, the Jewish historian. Quintilian the orator, and Pliny the naturalist, flourished in his reign, and were highly esteemed by him. He was no less an encourager of all other excellencies in art; and invited the greatest masters and artificers from all parts of the world, making them considerable presents. Yet all his numerous acts of generosity and magnificence could not preserve his character from the imputation of rapacity and avarice. He revived many obsolete methods of taxation and even bought and sold commodities himself, to increase his fortune. He is charged with advancing the most avaricious governors to the provinces, to share their plunder on their return to Rome. He descended to some very dishonorable imposts, even to the laying a tax upon urine. When his son Titus remonstrated against the meanness of such a tax, Vespasian, taking a piece of money, demanded if the smell offended him; and then added that this very money was produced by urine. But, in excuse for this, the exchequer, when Vespasian came to the throne, was so much exhausted that he informed the senate that it would require a supply of £300,000,000 (of our money) to re-establish the commonwealth. But, while the provinces were thus obliged to contribute to the support of the power, he took every precaution to provide for their safety; so that we find but two insurrections in this reign. In the fourth year of his reign Antiochus, king of Comagena, holding a private correspondence with the Parthians, the declared enemies of Rome, was taken prisoner in Cilicia, by Pyrrhus_the governor, and sent bound to Rome. But Vespasian generously gave him residence at Lacedæmon, and allowed him a revenue suitable to his dignity. About the same time the Alani, a barbarous people inhabiting along the river Tanais, abandoned their barren wilds, and invaded the kingdom of Media. Thence passing into Armenia, after great ravages, they overthrew king

Tiridates with prodigious slaughter. Titus was sent to chastise their insolence; but the barbarians retired at the approach of a Roman army, loaded with plunder. These incursions, how ever, were but a transient storm, the effect of which were soon repaired by the emperor's moderation and assiduity. He now formed and established a thousand nations, which had scarcely before amounted to 200. He had during his whole reign a particular regard to Britain; his generals, Petilius Cerealis, and Julius Frontinus, brought the greatest part of the island into subjection; and Agricola, who succeeded soon after, completed what they had begun. See ENGLAND. In this manner, having reigned ten years, loved by his subjects, and deserving their affection, he was surprised by an indisposition at Campania, which he at once declared would be fatal, crying out in the spirit of Paganism, methinks I am going to be a god.' Removing thence to the city, and afterwards to a country seat near Reate, he was there taken with a flux, which brought him to the last extremity. However, perceiving his end approach, and just going to expire, he cried out that an emperor ought to die standing; wherefore, raising himself upon his feet, he expired in the hands of those that sustained him.

TITUS VESPASIAN.-Titus, being joyfully received as emperor, began his reign with every virtue that became an emperor and a man. During the life of his father there had been many imputations against him; but, upon his exaltation to the throne, he seemed entirely to take leave of his former vices, and became an example of the greatest moderation and humanity. He had long loved Berenice, sister to Agrippa king of Judea, a woman of the greatest beauty and allurements. But, knowing that the connexion with her was disagreeable to the people of Rome, he sent her away, notwithstanding their mutual passion and the many arts she used to induce him to change his resolution. He next discarded all those who had been the former ministers of his pleasures, and forbore to countenance the companions of his looser recreations, though he had formerly taken great pains in their selection. This moderation, added to his justice and generosity, procured him the love of all good men, and the appellation of the delight of mankind, which all his actions seemed calculated to ensure. As he came to the throne with all the advantages of his father's popularity, he was resolved to use every method to increase it. He therefore took particular care to punish all informers, false witnesses, and promoters of dissension, condemning them to be scourged in public, dragged through the theatre, and banished to the uninhabited parts of the empire, and sold as slaves. His courtesy and readiness to do good have been celebrated even by Christian writers; his principal rule being never to send any petitioner away dissatisfied. One night, recollecting that he had done nothing beneficial to mankind the day preceding, he said, 'My friends, to day I have lost a day.' In this reign, an eruption of mount Vesuvius did considerable damage, overwhelming many towns, and sending its ashes into countries more than 100 miles distant. Upon this memorable occasion,

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Pliny the naturalist lost his life; for, being impelled by too eager a curiosity to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the flames. There happened also about this time a fire at Rome, which continued three days and nights successively, which was followed by a plague, in which 10,000 men were buried in a day. ror, however, did all that lay in his power to repair the damage sustained by the public; and, with respect to the city, declared that he would take the whole loss of it upon himself. These disasters were in some measure counterbalanced by the successes in Britain, under Agricola. This excellent general, having been sent into that country towards the end of Vespasian's reign, showed himself equally expert in quelling the refractory, and civilising those who had formerly submitted to the Roman power. The Ordovices, or inhabitants of North Wales, were the first that were subdued. He then made a descent upon Mona, or the island of Anglesea, which surrendered at discretion. Having thus rendered himself master of the whole country, he took every method to restore discipline to his army, and to introduce some politeness among those whom he had conquered. He exhorted them, both by advice and example, to build temples, theatres, and stately houses. He caused the sons of their nobility to be instructed in the liberal arts; he had them taught the Latin language, and induced them to imitate the Roman modes of dressing and living. Thus, by degrees, this barbarous people began to assume the luxurious manners of their conquerors, and in time even outdid them in all the refinements of sensual pleasure. For the success in Britain, Titus was saluted emperor the fifteenth time; but he did not long survive his honors, being scized with a violent fever, at a little distance from Rome. Perceiving his death approach, he declared that during the whole course of his life he knew but of one action which he repented of; but that action he did not think proper to express. Shortly after he died (not without suspicion of treachery from his brother Domitian, who had long wished to govern), in the forty-first year of his age, having reigned two years two months and twenty days.

DOMITIAN.-The love which all ranks of people bore to Titus facilitated the election of his brother Domitian, notwithstanding the ill opinion many had already conceived of him. His ambition was already but too well known, and his pride soon appeared upon his coming to the throne, having declared that he had given the empire to his father and brother, and now received it again as his due. The beginning of his reign was universally acceptable to the people, as he appeared remarkable for clemency, liberality, and justice. He carried his abhorrence of cruelty so far as once to forbid the sacrificing of oxen. His liberality was such that he would not accept of the legacies that were left him by such as had children. His justice was such that he would sit whole days and reverse the partial sentences of the ordinary judges. He was very liberal in repairing the libraries which had been burnt, and recovering copies of such books as had been lost, sending on purpose to Alexandria to transcribe them. But he soc

began to show the natural deformity of his mind. No emperor before him entertained the people with such various and expensive shows. D ring these diversions he distributed rewards; sitting as president himself, adorned with a purple robe and crown, with the priests of Jupiter and the college of Flavian priests about him. The meanness of his occupations in solitude were a just contrast to his exhibitions in public. He usually spent his hours of retirement in catching flies, and sticking them through with a bodkin. His vices seemed every day to increase with the duration of his reign. His ungrateful treatment of Agricola seemed the first symptom of his natural malevolence. Domitian was always particularly fond of obtaining a military reputation, and therefore jealous of it in others. He had marched some time before into Gaul, upon a pretended expedition against the Catti, a people of Germany; and, without ever seeing the enemy, resolved to have the honor of a triumph upon his return to Rome. For that purpose he purchased a number of slaves, whom he dressed in German habits; and at the head of this miserable procession he entered the city, amidst the apparent acclamations and concealed contempt of all his subjects. The successes, therefore, of Agricola in Britain affected him with an extreme degree of envy. This admirable general routed the Caledonians; overcame Galgacus, the British chief, at the head of 30,000 men; and, afterwards sending out a fleet to scour the coast, first discovered Great Britain to be an island. See SCOTLAND. He likewise discovered and subdued the Orkneys, and thus reduced the whole into a civilised province of the Roman empire. When the account of these successes was brought to Domitian he received it with a seeming pleasure, but real uneasiness. He thought Agricola's rising reputation a reproach upon his own inactivity; and, instead of attempting to emulate, he resolved to suppress the merit of his services. He ordered him, therefore, the external marks of his approbation, and took care that triumphant ornaments, statues, and other honors, should be decreed him; but at the same time he removed him from his command, under a pretence of appointing him to the government of Syria. Agricola surrendered up his government to Sallustius Lucullus, but 300n found that Syria was otherwise disposed of. Upon his return to Rome, which was privately and by night, he was coolly received by the emperor; and, dying some time after in retirement, it was supposed that his end was hastened by Domitian's direction. Domitian soon after found the want of so experienced a commander in the many irruptions of the barbarous nations that surrounded the empire. The Sarmatians in Europe, joined with those in Asia, made a formidable invasion: at once destroying a whole legion, and a general of the Romans. The Dacians, under Decebalus their king, made an irruption, and overthrew the Romans in several engagements, so that every season became memorable for some remarkable overthrow. At last, the state making a vigorous exertion of its internal power, the barbarians were repelled, partly by money, which enabled them to make invasions afterwards to greater advantage.

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Domitian was resolved not to lose the honor of a triumph, and took the surname of Germanicus, for his conquest over a people with whom he never contended. In proportion as he merited ridicule, his pride every day demanded greater homage. He would permit his statues to be made only of gold and silver; assumed to himself divine honors; and ordered that all men should treat him with the same appellations which they gave to the divinity. His cruelty was not behind his arrogance: he caused numbers of illustrious senators and others to be put to death upon the most trifling pretences. Salustius Lucullus, his lieutenant in Britain, was destroyed only for having given his own name to a new kind of lance. Junius Rusticus died for publishing a book in which he commended Thrasea and Priscus, two pliilosophers who opposed Vespasian's coming to the throne. Such cruelties as these naturally produced rebellion. Lucius Antonius, governor in Upper Germany, assumed the ensigns of imperial dignity. As he was at the head of a formidable army, his success remained long doubtful; but, a sudden overflowing of the Rhine dividing his army, he was set upon at that juncture by Normandus, the emperor's general, and totally routed. Domitian's severity was greatly increased by this success. To discover those who were accomplices with the adverse party, he invented new tortures. During these cruelties, he never pronounced sentence without a preamble full of gentleness and mercy. He was particularly terrible to the senate, the whole body of whom he frequently threatened entirely to extirpate. At one time, he surrounded the senate-house with his troops, to the great consternation of the senators. At another he resolved to amuse himself with their terrors in a different manner. Having invited them to a public entertainment, he received them all very formally at the entrance of his palace, and conducted them into a spacious hall, hung round with black, and illuminated by a few melancholy lamps, that diffused light only sufficient to show the horrors of the place. All around were to be seen nothing but coffins, with the names of each of the senators written upon them, together with other objects of terror, and instruments of execution. While the company beheld all the preparations with silent agony, several men, having their bodies blackened, each with a drawn sword in one hand and a flaming torch in the other, entered the hall, and danced round them. After some time, when the guests expected nothing less than instant death, the doors were set open, and a servant informed them that the emperor gave all the company leave to withdraw. These cruelties were rendered still more odious by his lust and avarice. Frequently, after presiding at an execution, he would retire with the lewdest prostitutes, and use the same baths. rice, the consequence of his profusion, knew no bounds. He seized upon the estates of all against whom he could find the smallest pretensions. He particularly exacted large sums from the Jews: and was excited against them, not only by avarice, but by jealousy. A prophecy had been long current in the east, that a person of the line of David should rule the world. Where

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